PEDAGOGY

Welcome to the PEDAGOGY page!

=TOPICS TO STUDY=

=== Method: It is a system for planning carrying out, and evaluating a series of learning experiences, it includes ways and means of achieving objectives and procedures for evaluating learner progress. it is a way of teaching, especially a regular, orderly, and definite procedure. according to Edward Anthony (1963) method is an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selective approach. ===

=== - Technique: Any of a wide variety of exercices, activities, or taks use in the classroom for realizing lesson objectives. These are the details or procedure by which a method is carrried out, for example. demostrations, field trips. According to Edwar Anthony it is the specific activities manifested in the classroom that were consistent with a method and therefore were consistent witha method and therefore were in harmony with an approach as well. ===

=== - Curriculum/Syllabus: (BETZY FIJATE QUE EN EL LIBRO DICE Q SE LE LLAMA SYLLABUS EN UK Y CURRICULUM IN US, SEGUN ELLOS ES LO MISMO) Designs for carrying out a particular language profram. It includes a primary concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated gruo pf learner in a defined context. ===

=== The Grammar Translation Method : This approach was historically used in teaching Greek and Latin, classes are taught in the ss. mother´s tongue, with little active use of the target language, vocabulary is taught in the form of isolated word lists. elaborate explanations of grammar are always provided. often the only drills are exercices in translating disconnected sentences form the target language into the mother tongue and vice versa. little or no attention is given to pronunciation. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION APPROACH: given in native language, grammatical parsing: forms and inflection, translate sentences, not for communication. === === Gouin and the series method: designed by a french teacher who try to learn german by memorizing thousand of word, he did not succeed, when he went back home he say his little nephew learning french, he came to the conclution that language learning is primarily a matter of transforming perceptions into conceptions, his method taught lerners directly (without translating) and conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations) a SERIES of connected sentences that are easy to perceive, for example I WALK TOWARDS THE DOOR. I DRAW NEAR TO THE DOOR. I DRAW NEARER TO THE DOOR. I GET TO THE DOOR. I STOP AT THE DOOR. === === The Direct method: this approach was developed initially as a reactio to the grammar-translation approach in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language. Lesson begin with a dialogue using a moderns conversational style inthe targedt language. material is first presented orally with actions or pictures, the mother tongue is never, never used, the is no translation, the preferred exercices is a series of questions in the target language based on the dialogue, question are answered in the target language. DIRECT APPROACH: no use of mother tongue, dialogues, actions, pictures, grammar and target culture taught inductively === === The Audiolingual Method: bases on the principles of behavior psychology, it adapted many of the principles on procedures of the direct method in part as a reaction to the lack of speaking skills of the reading approach. new material is presented in the form of a dialogue, the method fosters dependence on mimicry, memorization of set prhases ad over-learning, structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills, little or no grammatical explanations are provided, skills are sequenced listening, speaking, reading and writign are develop in order., there is a lot of use of language laboratories, tapes and visual aids, great importance is given to precise native-like pronunciation. AUDIOLINGUALISM: dialogues, mimicry, memorization, sequenced grammar structures and 4 skills in language learning, context and materials are carefully controlled. === === Cognitive Code Learning: (carrol 1966) this appoach began to inject more deductive rule learning into language classes, an amalgamation of the audiolingual method and the grammar translation techniques classes reatined the drilling tyupical of ALM but added healthy doses of reule xplanations and reliance on grammatical sequencing of material., cognitive-code learning emphasized a conscious awareness of rules and their apllications to second language lerning. it was a areactio to the strictly behavioristic practices of ALM and ironically a return to some of the ´practices of Grammar Translation. COGNITIVE APPROACH: indivudualized instruction, grammar rule frist, practice later, pronunciation de-emphasized, reading, writing and vocabulary instruction are important. ===

="Designer" Methods of the Spirited 1970's (see pages 24 - 31 of Teaching by Principles, Douglas B.)=

**1. Community language learning: method in which learners in a classroom were regarded not as a class but as a group, a group in need of certain therapy and counseling, in order ofr any learning to to take place, group members first needed to interact in an interpersonal relationship in which students and teacher joined together to facilitate learning in a context of valuing each individual in the group. the gorup of clients (beginners learners of english) having first stablished in their native language an interpersonal relationship and trus, were seated in a circle with the counselor (teacher) on the outside of the circcle. when one of the clientw wishede to say something to the goup or to an individual he or she said it in the native language and the counselor translated the uutereance aback to the learnier in the second language. the learner them repeated the sentence in english as accurately as possible. ** **2. Suggestopedia:** method derivedtaht was derived from the bulgarian psychologist george Lozanov contention that the human brain could process great quantities fo material if given the right conditions for learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher, drawing on insights form soviet psychologiacal reaserach onextrasensory perceptionand from hyoga lozanov created a method for learning that capitalized on relaxed states of mind for maximum retention of material, music was central to his method. like other designer methods suggestopedia became a business enterprisse, and it made promises in the advertisin world that were not completely supported by research., we did learn a how to believe in the power fo the human brain.::: **3. The Silent Way: Caleb Gattegno believed that learner should develop independence, autonomy and responsibility, at the same time, learners in a silent way classroom had to cooperate with each other in the process of solving language problems. the techer a stimulator but not a hand-holder was silent much of the time .** **4. Total Physical Response: James Asher was the developer of TPR, he defines TPR method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system this combination of skills allows the ss. to assimilate info and skills at a rapid rate, it uses psycho motor system to teach vocabulary and sentence forms, ss. not forced to speak until ready, command forms used to convey information, builds gradually in complexity, supports kinesthetic learning style. Step in TPR: teacher say command and performs the action, teacher says command and both ts. and ss. perform the action, teacher say command and ss. performs the actions. teacher tell one ss. to perform the action, reverse the roles or ss. give each other commands- ** **5. The Natural Approach: it was aimed at the goal of basic personal communication skills, that is everyday language situation, conversations, shopping, listening to the radio, the initial task of the ts. was to provide comprehensible input, that is spoken language that is understandable to the learner or just a little beyond ss. level.** learning cannot lead to acquisition. The focus is on meaning, not form (structure, grammar). The goal is to communicate with speakers of the target language

Beyond Method: Notional Funtional Syllabuses (see page 32 of Teaching by Principles, Douglas B.)

METHODOLOGIES CHART
 * || ** Theory of Language ** || ** Theory of Learning ** || ** Objectives ** || ** Syllabus ** || ** Activity Types ** || ** Learner Roles ** || ** Teacher Roles ** || ** Roles of Materials ** ||
 * **Audiolingual** || Language is a system of tule-governed structures hierarchically arranged. || Habit formation; skills are learned more effectively if oral precedes written; analogy, not analysis. || Control of structures of sound, form, and order, mastery over symbols of the language; goal: native-speaker mastery. || Graded syllabus of phonology; morphology; and syntax. Contrastive analysis. || Dialogues and drills, repetition and memorization, pattern practice. || Organisms that can be directed by skilled training techniques to produce correct responses. || Central and active teacher-dominated method. Provides model, controls direction and pacce. || Primarily teahcer-oriented. Tapes and visuals, language lab often used. ||
 * **Total Physical Response** || Basically a structuralist, grammar-based biew of language. || L2 learning is the same as L1 learning; comprehension before production, is "imprinted" through carrying out commands || Teach oral proficiency to produce learners who can communicate uninhibitedly and intelligibly with native speakers. || Sentence based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria being primary, but focus on meaning, not form. || Imperative drills to elicit physical actions. || Listener and performer, little influence over the content of learning. || Active and direct role; "the direcctor off a stge play" with student actors. || No basic text; materials and media have an important role later. Initially voice, action, and gestures are sufficient. ||
 * **The Silent Way** || Each language is composed of elements that give it a unique rhythm and spirit. Functional vocabulary ad core structure are key to rhe spirit of language. || Processes of learning a second language are fundamentally different from L1 learning. L2 learning is an intellectual, cognitive process. Surrender to the music of the language, silent awareness then active trial. || Near-native fluency, correct pronunciation, basic pratical knowledge of the grammar of the L2. Leaner learns how to learn a language. || Basically structural lessons planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary. Items are introduced according to theur grammatical complexity. || Learner responses to commands, questions, and visual cues Activities encourage and shape oral responses without grammatical explanation or modeling by teacher. || Learning is a process of personal growth. Learners are responsible for their own learnig and must develop independence, autonomy, and responsibility. || Teachers must teach test get out of the way. Remain impassive. Resist temptation to model, remodel, assist, direct, exhort. || Unique materials: colored rods, color-coded pronunciation and vocabulary charts. ||
 * **Community Language Learning** || Kanguage is more than a system for communication. It involves whole person, culture, educational, developmental communicative processes. || Learning involves the whole person. It is a social process of growth form childlike dependence to self-direction and independence. || No specific objectives. Near-native mastery is the goal. || No set syllabus. Course progression is topic-based; learners provide the topics. Syllabus emerges from learners' intention and the teacher´s reformulaitons. || Combination of innovative and conventional. Translation, group work, recording, transcription, reflection and observation, listening, free conversation. || Learners are members of a community. Learning is nor viewed as an individual accomplishment, but somthing that is achieved collaboratively. || Couseling/parental analogy. Teacher provides a safe environment in which students can learn. || No textbook, which would inhibitgrowth. materials are developed as course progresses. ||
 * **The Natural Approach** || The essence of language is meaning. Vocabulary, not grammar, is the heart of language. || There are two ways of L2 language development: "acquisition" - a natural subconscious process. Learning cannot lead to acquisition. || Designed to give beginners and intermediate learners basic communicative skills. Four broad areas: basic personal communicative skills (oral/written); academic learning skill (oral/written). || Based on selection of communicative activities and topics divided from learner needs. || Activities allowing comprehensible input, about thihings in the here and now. Focus on meaning not form. || Should not try to learn language in the usual sense, but should try to lose themselves in activities involvving meaningful communication. || The teacher is the primary source of comprehensible input. Must create positive low anxiety climate. Must choose and archestrate a rich mixture of classroom activities. || Materials come from realia rather than textbooks. Primary aim is to promote comprehension and communication. ||
 * **Suggestopedia** || Rather conventional, although memorization of whole meaningful texts is recommended. || Learning occurs through suggestion, when learners are in a deeply relaxed state. Baroque music is used to induce this state. || To deliver advanced conversational competence quickly. Learners are required to master prodigious lists of vocabulary pairs, although the goal is understanding, not memorization. || Ten unit courses consisting of 1,200 word dialogues graded by vocabulary and grammar || Initiatives, question and asnwer, role play, listenng exercises under deep relaxation. || Must maintain a passive state and allow the materials to work on them. || To create situations in which the learner is most suggestible and present material in a way most likely to encourage positive reception and retention. must exude athority and confidence. || Consist of texts, tapes, classroom fistures, and music. Text should have force, literary quality, and interesting characters. ||
 * **Communicative Language Teaching** || Language is a system for the expression of meaning; primary function - interaction and communication. || Activities involving real communication; carrying out meaningful tasks; and using language which is meaningful to the learner promote learning. || Objectives will reflect the needs of the learner; they will include functional skills as well as linguistic objectives || Will iclude some/all of the following: structures, functions, notions, themes, tasks. Ordering will be guided by learner needs. || Engage learners in communication, involve proceces such as information sharing, negotiation of meaning || Learner as negotatior, interactor, giving as well as taking. || Facilitator of the communication process, participants' taks, and texts; needs analyst, couselor, process manager. || Primary role in promoting communicative language use; task-based materials; authentic. ||

2. Acquiring received knowledge: the learner’s perspective
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 18

Wallace (1991) argues that received knowledge element should both directly inform the experiential knowledge element and be informed by it. Within the context of a course, this means relating input sessions on topics such as linguistics, methodology, and language acquisition theory to the periods of teaching practice or school experience. As Wallace (1991) suggests, ways should be found of making the relationship reciprocal, not one-way, so that the trainee can reflect on the received knowledge in the light of classroom experience, and so that classroom experience can feed back into the received knowledge sessions. This type of reflection that can result in trainees perceiving the relevance of theory to practice may be done privately, on an individual basis, outside the formal framework of the course, but should preferably be a shared experience, which is focused along selected parameters. Techniques for achieving this include micro-teaching, directed observation, classroom-based research, use of video and lesson transcripts and diary studies.

3. Assessment in teacher education
Training foreign language teachers: a reflective approach By Michael Wallace PG 126

4. Classroom management:
WHAT IS CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT:


 * It is effective discipline
 * it is being prepared for class
 * it is motivating your ss.
 * it is providing a safe, comfortable larning environment
 * it is building your ss. self esteem
 * it is being creative and imaginative in daily lessons


 * teaching styles
 * personality_attitudes
 * student population
 * not all management strategies are effective for every teacher

WHY IS CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IMPORTANT?


 * satisfaction and enjoyment in teaching are dependent upon leading ss. to cooperate
 * classroom managemente issues are of highest concetn for beginning teachers

PRINCIPLES FOR SUCCESSFUL CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT


 * Deal with disruptive behaviors but also manage to minimize off-task, non-disruptive behaviors
 * teach ss. to manage their own behavior
 * ss. learn to be on-task and engaged in the learning activities you have planned for them (it is more natural to be off-task than on)

TECHNIQUES FOR BETTER CLASSROOM CONTROL


 * focus attention on entire class
 * do not talk over student chatter
 * silence can be effective
 * use softer voice so ss. really have to listen to what you are saying
 * direct your instruction so that ss. know what is going to happen
 * monitor groups of ss to check progfress
 * move around the room so ss. have to pay attention more readily
 * give ss. non-verbal cues
 * enage in low profile intervention of disruptions
 * make sure classroom is comfortable and safe
 * over plan your lessons to enusre you fill the period with learning activities
 * come to class prepared
 * show confidence in yhou teaching
 * learn ss. names as quickly as possible

TRANSITION TIME VERSUS ALLOCATED TIME THE GOAL: increase the variety fo learning activities but decrease transition time, student engagement adn on task behaviors are dependent on how smoothly and efficiently teachers move from one learning activity to another.
 * Allocated time: the time periods you intend for your ss. to be engaged in learning activities
 * Transition time: time periods that exist between times allocated for learning activities ( for ex. getting ss. asembled and attentive, assigning readin and directing to bein, getting ss. attention away from reading and preparing for class discussion)

WITHITNESS: it refers to a teacher´s awareness of what is going on in the classroom, a teacher has withitness if: when discipline problem occur, the teacher consistently takes action to suppress the misbehavior of exactly those ss. who instigated teh problem; when two discipline problems arise concurrently, the teacher deals with the most serious first; the teacher decisively handles instances of off-task behavior before the behaviors either gets out of hand or are modeled by others: when handling misbehavior make sure all ss. learn what is unacceptable about that behavior; getting angry or stressed does not reduce future misbehavior; deal with misbehavior without disrupting the learning activity.

JONES´STUDY OF OFF-TASK BEHAVIORS: 99% of off-task behaviors take one of several form: talking out of turn, clowning, daydreaming, moving about without permission, antisocial, dangerous behaviors make up a fraction of the time ss. spend off-task.

PROXIMITY AND BODY LANGUAGE:
 * eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, physical proximity to ss. and the way you carry yourself will communicate that you are in calm control of the class and mean to be taken seriously,
 * be free to roam,
 * avoid turning back to class.

COOPERATION THROUGH COMMUNICATION:
 * verbalize descriptions of behaviors and never value judgments about individuals
 * verbalize feeling but reamin in control
 * DO NOT USE SARCASM
 * do not place lables (good or bad)
 * do not get ss. hooked on praise (praise the work adn behaviuor, not the ss. themselves)
 * speak only to people when they are ready to listen.

CLASSROOM RULES FOR CONDUCT
 * formalized statements that provide ss. with general guidelines for the types of behaviors that are required and the types that are prohibited
 * each rule in a small set of rules is more important than each rule in a large set of rules

A BUSINESSLIKE ATMOSPHERE:
 * take advantage of initial uncertainty
 * establish an environment in which achievin specified learning goals takes priprity over other concerns
 * it is much easier to establish thsi environment from the beginning rather than later
 * 5 STEPS:**
 * 1) take advantage of the new school year or tems to set stage for cooperation
 * 2) be particularly prepared and organized
 * 3) minimize transition time
 * 4) utilize a communication style that establishing non-threatening, comfortable environment
 * 5) clearly establish expectations for conduct

BEGINNING A NEW YEAR:
 * take advantage of initial uncertainty
 * ride your fences
 * PLAN for a favorable beginning (classroom-lab organization, ongoing routines)
 * use learning activities with easy-to-follow, uncomplicated directions

DISCLOSURE STATEMENT:

COMPONENTS OF DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
 * used to clearly communicate expecttions to ss. and parents
 * refer back to the guidelines throughout the term
 * not a legally blinding document
 * basic course outline
 * grading procedures (include procedures for making up missed work, extra credit, homework expected, etc.)
 * attendance policies (should be consisten with school policy)
 * other class rules, policies, procedures
 * safety consideration as necessary
 * accommodation for disabilities statement
 * signature of ss and parent-guardian

DEALING WITH MISBEHAVIOR AND ITS FUNCTIONS:

reamin focus and calm, organize thoughts
 * every behavior has a function
 * four primary reasons for disruptive behavior in the classroom: 1. Power 2. revenge 3. attention 4.want to be left alone (ex. disinterest or feeling of inadequecy)
 * many misbehaviors exhibited by ss. are responses to a behavior exhibited by the teacher.
 * do not tolerate undesirable behaviors no matter what the excuse
 * understanding why a person exhibits a behavior is no reason to tolerate it
 * understanding the function of a behavior will help in knowing how to deal with that behavior
 * either respond decisibely or ignore it al together
 * distinguish between off-task behaviors adn off-task behavior patterns
 * provide ss. with dignified ways to terminate off-task behaviors
 * avoid playing detective
 * utilize alternative lesson plans
 * utilize the help of colleagues
 * utilize the help of guardians
 * DO NOT USE CORPORAL PUNISHMENT

MODIFYING OFF-TASK BEHAVIOR PATTERNS
 * use the principles of extinctions
 * specify the exact behavior patterns to extinguish
 * identify positive rreinforcers for the behavior
 * plan to eliminate positive reinforcement
 * establish a realistic time schedula
 * implement the plan
 * evaluate the effectiveness by observing behavior
 * use the principle of Shaping: reinforce behaviors that are similoar to the behavior to be learned, subsequent actions that are more like the behavior to be learned than previous actios are reinforced, subsequent actions that are less like the behavior to be learned than previous actions are not positively reinforced.

ATTENTION SEEKING-BEHAVIOR:


 * attention-seeking ss. prefer being punished, admonished or criticized to being ignored
 * give attentions to this ss. when he or she is on task and cooperating
 * catch them being good, and let them know you caught them

POWER-SEEKING BEHAVIOR:


 * power-seeking ss. attempt to provoke teachers into a struggle of wills
 * in most cases, the teacher should direct attention to other members of the class.

5. Classroom observation
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 60

According to Jerry G. Gebhard Clasroom Observation is a non judgmental description of classroom events that can be analyzed and given interpretation.
 * **What do we observe**: ts. role´s as dirll sergeant, traditional, transmitter of knowledge, language facilitator
 * atmosphere: authoritarina, tense, open, friendly, democratic
 * Classroom management: orfanization,l explitation of unexpected or unplanned occurrences.
 * classroom interaction: amount of ts. talk, ts. ss. interaction, participation
 * affective factor: ts. ss. atittudes, confidence building, classroom atmosphere, st. risk taking, ts. encouragment and feedback, ss attentiveness.
 * use of resources_teaching aids: board presentations, handouts, texts, equipment, tape recorders, computers. etc.
 * teaching techniques
 * methodology
 * acquisition
 * various procedures
 * patterns of group dynamics
 * teacher´s personality
 * command of english.

WHY CLASSROOM OBSERVATION:


 * collect data to be able to analyze, describe, and interpret classroom interaction.
 * encourage self-awareness about teaching
 * reflect on one´s own teaching
 * develop research skills
 * learn from peers
 * improve classroom practice and performance
 * evaluate teaching
 * learn to observe
 * focus on one´s weaknesses
 * fell more confident
 * offers ts. feedback
 * encourages better lesson preparation,

SOME GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR OBSERVATION:


 * objective not subjective
 * be supportive not judgmental
 * be sensitive
 * no feeling of threat, or intimidation, but rewarding and non-threatening
 * high level of trust should be established
 * positive interpersonal relationships
 * the presence of a visitor affects ghe class dinamics
 * do we asses to observe and to judge or to learn
 * Formative: the improvement of teaching
 * Summative: involves the evaluation merit, promotion or ternure decision
 * Unstructured: unlimited, sporadic observation, (not idea about what to look for, no criteria for analyzing the interaction to observe.
 * Structured: limited, systematic, microscopic, defined scope of observation

SYSTEM-BASED OBSERVATION
 * accepting feelings or attitudes expressed by a pupil-
 * praising or encouragin a pupil
 * accepting or using a ss. ideas
 * asking questions
 * lecturing
 * giving directions, orders commands
 * criticizing or justifying authority
 * ss-talk response (ex. answering a question)
 * pupil-talk initiation
 * silence confusion

The trainee meets the observer to discuss the observation plan well before the class because “suggestions made to the teacher just before they teach a lesson can undermine a teacher’s confidence”
 * Pre-observation conference**
 * Observing the class** At this point, all of the previous steps merge to make the observation a collaborative, developmental, and non-judgmental endeavour, and the observer becomes a partner in the process and not just an intimidating “expert.” In addition to carefully completing the observation tool, the observer can consider becoming a participant and joining in or monitoring group work, talking to the students about their learning, or even co-teaching.
 * Feedback from the observation** The feedback session can be either immediate or delayed. Many teacher educators vouch for delaying feedback because even one day gives trainees time to digest their lesson and come to a more complete self-evaluation. Denman (1989) states that delayed feedback “gives the trainee the opportunity to come to a more mature, more balanced appraisal of the lesson” by viewing the lesson holistically and avoiding “the narrower point-by-point, stage-by-stage criticisms that tend to be chronological but not wholly evaluative.”

6. Classroom-based assessment
Classroom-based assessment is a method of assessing student performance by measuring academic and/or behavioral progress while the student participates in a typical school learning situation. Classroom-based assessments can give the rater (teacher) the opportunity to assess performance while the student is in a comfortable learning environment. For many students who struggle with time-based exams or performance anxiety, a classroom-based assessment can be a more informative assessment.

7. Course design and assessment
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 141

Whether we are considering staff development for specific change implementation or a more general purpose course, the training philosophy, or rationale, of a program is just the first of many factors that need consideration. Below is a summary of the issues that Wallace considers important.

8. Curriculum design
[|Curriculum] design is an aspect of the education profession which focuses on developing curricula for students. Some education professionals specialize in curriculum design, and may spend all of their time working on curricula, rather than teaching in the classroom, while in other cases working teachers develop their own curricula. Curriculum design is also practiced by parents who [|homeschool] their children, sometimes with the guidance of an experienced education professional who can provide advice and suggestions, and sometimes with the assistance of experienced homeschoolers. In many nations, specific benchmark standards are set for education to ensure that children across the nation achieve a similar level of education. For example, a government may dictate when children should start to Another aspect involves thinking about the students themselves, and what type of curriculum would be most appropriate. Students come from a wide variety of cultural and class backgrounds, and curriculum design should not be a one size fits all approach. Methods which work in a school located in an upper class district may not be appropriate for a school in an area with many immigrants who do not speak the primary language of instruction, for example, and methods used with students who are language learners would not work for children with intellectual disabilities. A skilled [|curriculum designer] needs to think about the needs of the student population he or she is serving. Curriculum design may also include a consideration of limitations. A homeschooling parent, for example, might be able to make time to take a student on a trip to London to see historical items in museums to learn in context, while an entire classroom in Bangkok could not reasonably replicate this experience. Limitations can include issues like funding, access to textbooks, moral norms in the region where the students are being taught, and limitations set by the school district. For example, someone who works on curriculum design for sexual education programs may be designing curricula for school districts in which certain subjects cannot be discussed, requiring an adjustment to the curriculum. Flexibility is another important aspect of curriculum design. Many classroom teachers are working with students of different levels of ability, and they need to be able to adjust the curriculum to keep all of the students engaged and learning. It may also be necessary to change the pace of a curriculum to deal with problems as they arise; for example, a class might have more trouble grasping a concept than was expected, and the teacher needs to be able to spend more time on it, rather than racing on to the next subject and leaving students confused. learn multiplication and division, set standards for reading ability, and so forth. One aspect of curriculum design involves reviewing these standards and determining how they can be met or exceeded.


 * 9. Form-focused instruction **

THE PLACE OF GRAMMAR Grammar is the system of rules governing the conventional arrangement and relationship of words in a sentence. Diane Larsen-Freeman pointed out, grammar is one of three dimensions of language that are interconnected. Grammar gives us the form or the structures of language but those forms are literally meaningless without a second dimension, that of semantics (meaning), and a third dimension pragmatics. In other words, grammar tells us how to construct a sentence (word order, verb and noun systems, modifiers, phrases, clauses, etc.) and discourse rules tell us how to string those sentences together.

TO TEACH OR NOT TO TEACH GRAMMAR

The question is whether to teach grammar or not and if so how to teach it? Marianne Celce Murcia offered six easily identifiable variables that can help you to determine the role of grammar in language teaching.


 * 1) Age
 * 2) Proficiency level
 * 3) Educational background
 * 4) Language skills
 * 5) Style (register)
 * 6) Needs and goals

ISSUES ABOUT HOW TO TEACH GRAMMAR
 * 1) Should grammar be presented inductively or deductively?
 * 2) Should we use grammatical explanation and technical terminology in a CLT classroom?
 * 3) Should grammar be taught in separate grammar only classes?
 * 4) Should teachers correct grammatical errors?

GRAMMAR TECHNIQUES


 * 1) Charts
 * 2) Objects brought into class
 * 3) Maps and drawings
 * 4) Dialogues
 * 5) Written texts
 * 6) Give ss. Opportunities to initiate oral communication
 * 7) Encourage the development of speaking strategies

GRAMMAR SEQUENCING IN TEXTBOOKS AND CURRICULA

A WORD ABOUT VOCABULARY TEACHING

10. Initiating interaction in the classroom
WHAT IS INTERACTION: Interaction is the collaborative exchange of thoughts, feelings, or ideas between two or more people, resulting in a reciprocal effect on each other, theories of communicative competence emphasizes the importance of interactions as human beings use language in various contexts to negotiate meaing, or simply stated, to get an idea out of one person´s head and into the head of another person and viceversa. Through interaction, ss. can increase their language store as they listen to or read authentic linguistic material, or even the output fo their fellow ss. in discussions, skitos, joint problem.solving tasks, or dialogue journal. all they have learned or absorbed in real-life exchanges.

INTERACTIVE PRINCIPLES:


 * Automaticity: true human interaction is best accomplished when focal attention is on meaning and messsages and not on grammar and other linguistic forms. Learners are thus freed from keeping language in a controlled mode and can more easily proceed, automatic modes of processing.
 * Intrinsic motivation: as ss. become engaged with each other in speech acts of fulfillment and self-actualization, their deepest drive arre satisfied. And as they more fully appreciate their own competence to use language, they can developo a system of self-reward.
 * Strategic investment: Interaction requires the use of strategic language competence both to make certain decisions on how to say or write or interpret language, and to make reapirs when communication pathways are blocked. The spontaneity of interactive discourse requires judicios use of numerous strategies for production and comprehension.
 * Risk-taking: interaction requires the risk of failing to produce intended meaning, of faling to interpret intenden meaning on the part of someone else) of being laughed at, of being shunned or rejected, the rewards, of course are great and worth the risks.
 * The language-culture connection: the cultural loading of interactive speech as well as writing requires that interlocutors be thoroughly versed in the cultural nuances of languaged.
 * Interlanguage: the complexity of interaction entails a long developmental process of acquisition. Numerous error of production and comprehension will be a part of this development. And the role of teacher feedback is crucial to the developmental process.
 * Communicative competence: all of the elements of communicative competence (grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, pragmatic, and strategic) are involved in human interaction. All aspects must work together for a successful communication to take place.

ROLES OF THE INTERACTIVE TEACHER:


 * 1) The teacher as a controller: some control on the ts. part is actually an important element of succesfully carrying out interactive techniques
 * 2) The teacher as director: the teacher is like the conductor of an orchestdra it is your job to keep the process flowing smoothly and efficiently
 * 3) The teacher as manager: your role is as someone who plans lessons, modules, and courses, and who stdructures the larger, longer segments of classroom time, but who then allows each individual player to be creative within those parameters.
 * 4) The teacher as facilitator: teacher facilitates the process of learning, he capitalizes on the principles of intrinsic motivation by allowing ss. to discover language thorugh using it pragmatically, rahter than by telling them about language.
 * 5) The teacher as resource: here you take the less directive role, thye implication of the resoruce role is that the ss. takes the initiative of coming to you. you are available for advice and counsel when the ss. seeks it., of course you just not leave ss. to work by themselves.


 * 11. Integrating the “Four Skills: **

WHY INTEGRATION: Some may argue that the integration of the four skills diminishes the importance of the rules of listening, speaking, readin, and writing that are unique to each separate skill. Such an argument rarely holds up under careful scrutiny of integrated-skills courses. If anything, the added richness of the latter gives ss. Greater motivation that converts to better retention of principles of effective speaking, listening, reading and writing.

FIVE MODELS TO MAINTAIN INTEGRATED-SKILLS FOCUSED IN TEACHING:

It is also known as content-centered language teaching integrates the learning of some specific subject-matter content with the learning of a second language. The overall structure of a content-based curriculum, in contrast to many tdraditional language curricula, is dictated more by the nature of the subject matter than by language forms and sequences, the second language, then, is simply the medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner.
 * 1) CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION:

It provides an alternative to what would otherwise be traditional language classes by structuring a course around htmes or topics, theme-based curricula can serve the multiple interests of students in a classroom and can offer a focus on content while still adhering to institutional needs for offering a language course. There are some major principles underlying both theme-based and content-based instruction, they are as follows: Numerous current ESL book, especially at the intermediate or advanced levels, offer theme-based courses of study: Challenging topics in these textbooks engage the curiosity and increase motivation of students as they grapple with an array of real-life issues rangin from simple to complex and also improve their linguistic skill.
 * 1) THEME-BASED INSTRUCTION:
 * Automaticity
 * Meaningful learning
 * Intrinsic motivation
 * Communicative competence

This includes activities that engage both left and right-brain processing, that contextualize language, that integrate skills and that point toward authentic, real-world purposes, experiential learning tends to put an emphasis on the psychomotor aspects of language learning by involving learners in physical action into which language is subsumed and reinforced, experiential learning techniques tend to be learener-centered by nature, examples of this includes: hands-on projects, computer activities, research projects, cross-cultural experiences, field trips and other on-site visits, role-plays and simulations. Also some teacher-controlled techniques may be considered experiential, for example: using props, realia, visuals, show-and-tell sessions, playing games, utilizing media, singing.
 * 1) EXPERIENTAL LEARNING:

According to John Oller text will be easier to reproduce, understand and recall to the extent that is is strucdtured episodically, by this he meant that the presentation of language is enhanced if ss. Receive interconnected sentences in an interest-provoking episode rather tan in a disconnected series of sentences.
 * 1) THE EPISODE HYPOTHESIS:

for task.based teaching as an overall approach, the importance of organizing a course around communicattive task taht learners need to engage in outside the classroom, a task is an activity in which:
 * 1) TASK-BASED TEACHING:
 * meaning is primary
 * there is some communication problem to solve
 * there is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities
 * task completion has some priority
 * the assessment of the task is in terms of outcome

Task-based teaching makes en important distinction between **target tasks**, which students must accomplish beyond classroom, and **pedagogical tasks** which form the nucleus of the classroom activity.


 * MOTIVATION: ** a behavioristic psychologist like Skinner or Watson would stress the role of reward (and perharps punishments) in motivating behavior. In Skinners operant conditioning model, for example human beings, like other living organisms, will pursue a goal because they perceive a reward for doing so. This reward serves to reinforce behavior, to cause it to persist.


 * INTINSIC MOTIVATION: **
 * Mo ** tivation that is intrinsic focuses on mastery and learning,intrinsic motivation is more effective than extrinsic motivation in the long terms because it occurs for its own sake, action for which the only rewards are the spontaneous affects and cognitions hat accompany it. Intrinsically motivated behaviors require no external supports or reinforcements for their sustenance.

Motivation should be in moderation because too much control impedes learning, as ss. Can make poor decisions, motivation and program control should be balanced

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION IN THE SECOND LANG. CLASSROOM: MOLONES THEORY OF MOTIVATION: There are three parts to Malone ´ s theory:
 * DOUGLAS BROWN ´ S GUIDELINES FOR INTRINSIC MOTIV. IN THE CLASSROOM:
 * 1) Teachers are enablers, not rewarders. When teaching focus less on tangible reward and focus more on how to ge ss. Tu tune in to their potential and to be challenged by self-determined goals.
 * 2) Learners need to develop autonomy, not dependence: do not let ss. Become dependent on your daily praise, instead administer praise selectively and judiciously, hel ss. To recognize their own self-satisfaction I having done something well.
 * 3) Help learners to take charge of their own learning through setting some personal goals and utilizing learning strategies
 * 4) Learner-centered, cooperative teaching is intrinsically motivating: give ss. Chances to make choices in activities, topics, discussions, etc. so they do not feel like puppets on a string, since yuour are involving them in various aspects.
 * 5) Content-based activities and courses are intrinsically motivating: strive to focus your ss. On interesting, relevant subject-matter content that gets more linguistically involved with meanings and purposes.
 * 6) Tests, with special attention from the teacher can be intrinsically motivating:

KELLER ´ S FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS IN INTRINSIC MOTIVATION:
 * 1) Challenge: is the work not too easy, not too difficult? Are challenging goals set at the start of the lesson? Is challenge increased by uncertain outcomes? Is challenge adjusted as ss. Makes progress?
 * 2) Curiosity: sensory curiosity is aroused by the senses, cognitive curiosity is aroused by information, Which conflicts with ss. Expectation ´ s?
 * 3) Control:


 * 1) Attention: it must be maintained throughout
 * 2) Relevance: ss. Must see usefulness of solving a problem
 * 3) Confidence: expectations must be made clear, ss. Must be given reasonable opportunity to be successful, personal control is important.
 * 4) Satisfaction: ss. Must be enabled to use what they have learned, positive consequences should follow ss. Progress, encouragement should be provided during difficult times, fairness is important.

KENNETH THOMAS THEORY OF INSTRINSIC MOTIVATION:


 * 1) Sense of meaningfulness
 * 2) Sense of purpose
 * 3) Sense of choice
 * 4) Sense of competence

13. Language assessment: Principles and issues
WHAT IS A TEST: in plain words, it is a method of measuring a person´s ability or knowledege in a given domain, a test is a first method, it is a set of techniques, procedures, and items that constitute an instrument of some sort that requires performance or activity on the part of the test taker., a test measures a person ability or knowledge. There are three criteria for testing a test:

2. RELIABILITY: a reliable test is consistent and dependable, sources of unreliability may lie in the test itself or in the scoring of the test. known respectively as test reliability and rather (or scorer) reliability. If you give the same test to the same subject or matched subjects on two different occasions, the test itself should yield similar results, it shoul have test reliability.
 * 1) PRACTICALITY: a good test is practical. It is within the means of financial limitiations, time costraints, ease of administration, and scoring and interpretation. the extent to which a test is practical sometimes inges on whether a test is designed to be: Norm-referenced or criterion-referenced.
 * Norm-referenced test: these are standardized test intended to be administered to large audiences, with results quickly disseminated to test-takers, such tests must have fixed, predetermined responses in a format that can be electronically scanned. Practicality is a primary issue.
 * Criterion-referenced tests: these are designed to give tesk-takers feedback on specific course or lesson objectives, that is, the criteria. Classroom tests involving smaller numbers, and connected to a curriculum, are typical of criterion-referenced testin. Here, more time and effort on the part of the teacher (test administrator) are usually required in order to deliver the feedback.

3. VALIDITY: By far the most complex criterion of a good test is validity, the degree to which the test actually measures what it is intended to measure. How does one establish validity the validity of a test? validity can be established only by observation and theoretical justification, there is no final, absolute, and objective measure of validity. We have to ask questions that give us convincing evidence that a test accurately and sufficiently measures the test-talker for the particular objective, or criterion, of the test. If that evidence is there, tehn the test may be said to have criterion validity.

4. CONTENT VALIDITY: if a test actually samples the subject matter about which conclusions are to be drawn, if it requires the test-taker to perfom the behavior that is being measured, it can claim content validity. You can usally determine content validity, abservationally, if you can clearly define the achievement that you are measuring.

5. FACE VALIDITY: a concept that is very closely related to content validity is face validity, which asks the question Does the test, on the face, of it appear from the learner´s perspective to test what it is designed to test. To achieve peak performance on a test, a learner needs to be convinced that the test is indeed testing what it claims to test.
 * CONSTRUCT VALIDITY: A third category of validity tht teacher must be aware of in considering language tests is construct validity. One way to look at construct validity is to as the questions: Does this test actually tap into the theoretical construct as it has benn defined? Proficiency is a construct. Communicative competence is a construct, self-esteem is a construct. Virtually every issue in language learning and teaching involves theoretical construct.

KINDS OF TEST: There are many kinds of tests, each with aspecific purposed, a particular criterion to be measured. Below you will find desceriptions of five test types hat are in common use in language curricula. They are:


 * Proficiency tests: a proficiency test is non intended to be limited to any one course, curriculum or single skill in the language proficiency test have traditionally consisted of standardized multiple-choice item on grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, aural comprehension and sometimes a sample of writing.
 * Diagnostic test: a diagnostic test is designed to diagnose a particular aspect of a language. A diagnostic test in pronunciation might have the purpose of determining which phonological features of english are difficult for a learner and shold theregore become a parto of a curriculum.
 * Placemente tests: cetain proficiency test and diagnostic tests can act in the role of placemente tests, whose purpose is to place a student into an appropriate level or section of a language curriculum or school. a placemente test typically includes a sampling of material to be covered in the curriculum, and it thereby provides an indication of the point at shich the ss. will find a level or class to be neither too easy nor too difficult, but appropriately challenging.
 * Achievement tests: it is related directly to classroom lessons, units, or even a total curriculum. acheivementes tests are limited to particular material covered in a curriculum within a particular time frame, and are offered after a course has covered the objectives in question.
 * Aptitude tests: finally, we need to consider the type of test that is given to a person prior to any exposure to the second language, a test that predicts a person´s future success. A language aptitude test is designed to measure a person´s capacity or general ability to learn a foreing lang. and to be successful in that undertaking.

14. Lesson planning
FORMAT OF A LESSON PLAN: there are many ways of plannning a lesson there are essential elements that should be a part of a lesson plan, for example:

In stating objectives we have to distinguish between **terminal and enabling objectives;** terminal objectives: are final learning outcomes that you will need to measure and evaluate. Enabling objectives are interim step that build upon each other and lead to a terminal objective.
 * 1) Goals: you should be able to identify an overall purpose or goal that you will attempt to accomplish by the end of the class period. This goal may be quite gneralized, but it serves as a unifying theme for you.
 * 2) Objectives: it is very important to state explicity what you want students to gain from the lesson. Explicit statements here help you to:
 * be sure that you indeed know what it is you want to accomplish
 * preserve the unity of your lesson
 * predetermine whether or not you are trying to accomplish too much and,
 * evaluate ss. success at the end of, or after the lesson.

3. Material and Equipment: 4. Procedures: at this point, lessons clearly have trmendous variotion, but as very general set of guidelines for planning, you might think in terms of makin sure your plan includes:
 * an opening statement or activity as a warm-up
 * a set of activities and techniques in which you have considered appropriate proportions of time for: whole class work, small-group and pair work, teacher talk, student talk.
 * closure:

5. Evaluation: How can you determine how can your objecives have been accomplished? if your lesson has no evaluative component, you can easily find yourself making assupntions that are not informed by careful obaservation or measurement.

6. Extra class-work: sometimes misnamed homework (ss. do not necerssarily do extra-class work only at home) extra-class work, if it is warrented, needs to ble planned carefully adn communicated clearly to the students.

GUIDELINES FOR LESSON PLANNING:

SAMPLE LESSON PLAN
 * 1) How to begin planning:
 * 2) Variety, sequencing, pacing and timing: is there sufficient variety in tehcniques to keep the lesson lively and interesting? Are your techniques or activities sequenced logically? Is the lesson as a whole paced adequeately? Is teh lesson appropriately timed, considerin the number of minutes in the class hour?
 * 3) Gaugin difficulty: Figuring out in advance how easy or difficult certain techniques will be is usually learned by experience. it takes a good deal of cognitive empathy to put yoursel inyour ss. shoes and anticipate their problem areas. Some difficulty is caused by tasks themselves: therefore, make your direction crystal clear by writing.
 * 4) Individual differences: Your lesson plan should also take into account the variation of ability in your ss. especially those who are well below or well above the classroom norm.
 * 5) Student talk and teracher talk: give careful consideration in your lessonplan to the balance between ss. talk and teacher talk, our natural inclination as teachers is to talk too much, as you plan your lesson, and as you perharps sript out some aspect of it, see to it that ss. have a chance to talk, to produce language, and even to initiate their own topics and ideas.
 * 6) Adapting to an established curriculum:
 * 7) Classroom lesson notes: a final consideration in your lesson planning process is a very practical one, what sort of lesson notes will you actually carry into the classroom with you? if you have pages and pages of notes and reminders and scripts, you will never free yourself for spontaneity.

15. Microteaching
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 87

Definition of Microteaching: Microteaching denotes a training context in which a teaching situation has been reduced in scope and/or simplified in some systematic way. There are three main ways in which the teaching encounter may be scaled down: The teacher’s task may be simplified and made very specific; the length of the lesson may be shortened; the size of the class may be reduced. With this depiction, the picture of a microteaching session becomes clearer. It is the place where the teachers do not have to work as much as usual. They just practice one skill at a time and keep on doing this repeatedly until it is accepted by the supervisors. Besides, a microteaching session often lasts five to ten minutes, which is far different from real lessons (40-45 minutes). The class size is also smaller than in reality. Usually, fewer than ten students who may be real students or other teacher trainees form a class. In short, no matter how it may be perceived, microteaching has provided novice teacher trainees with opportunities to try teaching and correct themselves before being thrown into the real teaching profession.

Aims of microteaching: The purposes: give instructors confidence, support, and feedback”
 * There are four distinct stages of mi-croteaching. In the briefing, teachers re-ceive information on the skill to be prac-ticed and the method to be used. Duringthe teaching stage, the trainee teaches themicrolesson, and if possible, the micro-lesson is videotaped or audiorecorded. Inthe analysis and discussion period, thetrainee’s microlesson is reviewed, dis-cussed, analyzed, and evaluated. Finally,in the reteaching stage, the traineereteaches the microlesson, applying thosepoints raised during the discussion andanalysis.
 * In the first stage, the teacher trainee is to present brief information about what he/she intends to teach in the microlesson, including the skill to be taught and the techniques to be used to fulfill the teaching aims. The trainee can do this orally or in written form. Another way to do the briefing is to watch or listen to models which offer the suggestions for the teacher trainee to teach the lesson.
 * The third stage of a microteaching session is the critique (analysis and discussion) in which the supervisor facilitates other teacher trainees to give feedbacks on the microlesson. However, it is recommended that the teacher of the microlesson should be given a chance to raise her/his voice first of all in order to explain what she/he has intended to do and what has been achieved and what has not (Wallace, 1991, p.102
 * This protocol still works as a usual microteaching session. Its focus is that the critique stage is composed of two compliments and two suggestions from each mock student so as to maximize the helpfulness of the feedbacks. With this 2+2 protocol, if there are five teacher trainees in a microclass, each trainee will receive up to eight positive and eight constructive comments from her/his fellow trainees, which seems more well-structured and easier to digest.
 * //Preparing a microlesson//** The microlesson can be prepared by an individual or a group of teacher trainees. The objective and procedures ofthe microlessons should be clear. A variety of aids may be used to facilitate teach-ing the microlessons. These may includecards, actions, gestures, and drawings onthe board. The lesson should last fromfive to ten minutes.

Again, as the scope of a microlesson is small, learner teachers are able to concentrate on teaching one skill at a time. It can be said that only in microteaching can they do such kind of practice. Even in teaching practicum, they are required to teach the whole period, not just a segment of it. By splitting a lesson into its component skills, microteaching“lays the basis for a truly scientific approach to teacher training.” (Wallace, p.57). As microteaching is sometimes likened to a role-play (Geddes & Raz, 1979, p.63), teacher trainees can act as real teachers and have the power to monitor and adjust their performance when necessary. In other words, they are provided the opportunity to manage themselves in an active way. The last benefit mentioned in Wallace (p.57) is the critique session which evaluates the trainees’ performance as a process, guaranteeing better self-awareness of the trainees about their teaching.

suggested by Wallace (p.105) that microteaching should not be directly linked to assessment though it could contribute to the assessment of trainees’ “power of self-evaluation.” The nine skills practiced in microteaching are lesson planning, induction setting, presentation, stimulus variation, proper use of audio-visual aids, reinforcement, questioning, silence-body language and closure. Although the lesson is short, it shouldgenerate useful discussions. During theteaching, fellow trainees take notes thatthey can use during reflective discus-sions. This is especially useful if the stu-dents are also trainees because the expe-rience provides insights into learningproblems. To reduce the pressure on theteacher, the role of the supervisors shouldbe minimized. They should not interferewith the microlesson in any way.Observation during the microlesson isa learning experience. Fellow teachersshould prepare for this task by selecting afocus and purpose, and a method of data collection and by cooperating with thoseinvolved.
 * //Teaching a microlesson//**This is the interactive stage of mi-croteaching where the trainee puts intopractice what the group has planned. Theteacher’s task in microteaching is to prac-tice one skill at a time. The size of theclass is usually fewer than ten students,sometimes only four or five. Students maybe real students or fellow trainees. Microteaching should be in a schoolsetting, because it allows teachers to usereal students. Also, school-based mi-croteaching creates a positive atmosphereamong participants.
 * //Following up the microlesson//**The follow-up should include analyz-ing, discussing, and interpreting the data and the experiences acquired, and reflect-ing on the new experiences.

**16. Modes of teaching and learning in teacher education courses**
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 29 - SEE FILE:

17. Relating theory and practice: reflective model
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 48 The concept of Reflective Practice centers around the idea of life-long learning where a practitioner analyses experiences in order to learn from them. Reflective Practice is used to promote independent professionals who are continuously engaged in the reflection of situations they encounter in their professional worlds. There are several models of reflection used to draw lessons out of experiences.

"paying critical attention to the practical values and theories which inform everyday actions, by examining practice reflectively and reflexively. This leads to developmental insight

Wallace concludes that structured professional education should thus containtwo kinds of knowledge development: received knowledge, in which the trainee becomes familiar with the research findings, theories and skills which are widely accepted as being part of the necessary intellectual content of the profession; and experiential knowledge, where the trainee develops "knowledge-in-action" by practice of the profession, and will have had, moreover, the opportunity to reflect on that knowledge-in-action. Wallace himself points out that the reflective model is a compromise model, but he also draws our attention to the difference in status afforded to experience (including observation of others) in the craft. on the one hand, and reflective models on the other. In the former, trainees experience others teaching in order to imitate, whereas in the latter, such observation will be a matter for reflection. Within the context of a teacher education course, observation will be carefully structured in order to encourage reflection.

18. Sociocultural, political and institutional contexts
SOCIOPOLITICAL CONTEXTS SECOND AND FOREING LANGUAGE CONTEXTS ENGLISH AS AN INTERNTIONAL LANGUAGE LANGUAGE POLICY ISSUES INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS INSTITUTIONS AND HIGHER EDUCATION

19. Strategies-based instruction
STRATEGIC INVESTMENT The learning of any skill involves a certain degree of investmente of one´s time and effort.

GOOD LANGUAGE LEARNERS: Strategies-based instruction had its early roots in studies of good language learner, research in this area tended first to identify certain successfull language learner and then to extrac through tests of psycholinguistic factors,

STYLES OF SUCCESSFUL LANGUAGE LEARNING: one step in understanding Strategies-based instruction is to make a disctinction between **styles and strategies, styles,**whether related to personality (such as extroversion, self-esteem. anxiety) or to cognition ( such as left-right brain orientation, ambiguity tolerance, field sensitive) characterize the consistent and enduring traits, tendencies or preferences that may differentiate you from another person. Strategies. on the other hand, are specific methods of approaching a problem or task, modes of operation for achieving a particular end, or planned designs for controlling and manipulating certain information. Strategies vary widely within an individual, while styles are more constant and predictable.

DEVELOPING STUDENTS SELF-AWARENESS OF STYLES: how do you help learners to develop self-awareness necessry to work toward successful language-learning styles? several means are available to your as teacher, as follows:
 * 1) informal self-checklists
 * 2) formal personality and cognitive style tests
 * 3) reading, lectures and discussions
 * 4) encouraging good language behavior

HOW TO TEACH STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM: Rebeca oxford provides the most comprehensive taxonomy of learning strategies currently available. These strategies are divided into whr have come to be known as direct or cognitive strategies, which learners apply directly to the language itself, and indirect or metacognitive strategies, in which learners manage or control their own learning process.
 * Direct strategies: they include a nunmber of different ways of: remembering more effectively, using all
 * your cognitive processes, compensating for missing knowledge.
 * Indirect strategies: they include: organizing and evaluating your learning, managin your emotion, learning with others.

Here are a few techniques to help ss. overcome some tipical cognitive style problems:
 * 1) Teach strategies though interactive techniques
 * 2) use compensatory techniques:
 * Low tolerance of ambiguity: brainstorming, retellint stories, role-plays, paraphrasing, finding synonums, jigsaw techniques, skimming tasks.
 * Excesive impulsiveness: making inferences, syntactic or semantic clue searches, scanning for specific info. inductive rule generalization.
 * Excesive reflectiveness-caution: small-group techniques, role play, brainstorming, fluency techniques.
 * Too much right-brain dominance: syntactic or semantic clue searches, scanning for specific information, proofreading, categorizing and clustering activities, information-gap techniques.
 * Too much left-brain dominance: integrative language techniques, fluency techniques, retelling stories, skimming tasks.

3. Administer a strategy inventory.

PACKAGEDD MODELS OF SBI

Many of your opportunities for strategy training in teh classroom will be methodological, that is you will opt for one of the four possible means suggested above, there remain three more formalized models of incorporating stratey awareness and practice in language classrooms. Theses are growing in popularity as more educational administrator appreciate the value of SBI for ultimate success in a foreing language:
 * 1) Textbook-embedded instruction: a number of ESL books are offering guidelines and exercises for strategy awareness and practice withing the stream of a chapter.
 * 2) adjunct self-help guides: a second pre-packaged way of enlightening students about strataegies is through the assigment or recommendation of a self-help study guide
 * 3) learning centers: despite declining budgets in many schools and universities, a considerable number of learning centers around the worls have an ESL related component, Such centers typically make available to learners a number of possbile types of extra-class assistance in writing, reading, academyc study skills, pronunciation, and other oral reproduction.

20. Supervision and practical experience
TRAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG. 107

In the reflective model, the responsibility for the development of professional expertise is seen as essentially residing with the trainee, by a process of reflecting on his or her own practice. The role of the supervisor then becomes one of helping the trainee to develop and refine the trainee’s reflection on this particular lesson, and the trainee’s powers of reflection in general. This role is even more demanding than the previous one, and will fully extend the supervisor’s knowledge and expertise, but will also probably be found more rewarding. It will be clear that according to this model, a true supervisory dialogue is essential, because the supervisor must // start with the trainee’s experience. //Common ground must be established. There must be agreement on what happened, and what was intended to happen.

__**Stage 1: establishing the facts**__ - what happened? In this part of the dialogue, the supervisor and the trainee simply go over the lesson agreeing on the facts of what happened: the main stages of the lesson, and critical incidents during the lesson (from both the supervisor’s and the trainee’s point of view). In this way, each participant can be clear about how close together (or far apart) their interpretation of the events are, and also how far they agree on the significance of the events. It might be helpful to subdivide this question into: a. What did the teacher do? and b. What did the pupils do? __**Stage 2: objectives and achievements**__ Having established what actually happened, the dialogue now backtracks to what the teacher intended to happen: // What were the objectives? //This leads onto other vital questions, namely: a. What was achieved? and (most importantly of all) b. What did the pupils learn? __**Stage 3: generating alternatives:**__ what else could have been done? This is the most difficult area of all to handle. The idea here is to encourage the trainee to generate alternative strategies and to consider what the positive and negative effects might be. A difficult concept for trainees (and some supervisors!) to grasp is that there are almost always alternatives worth considering, even when both participants agree that the lesson has been very successful. Somehow, the trainees must be brought to the point where the discussion of alternative strategies, procedures, and so on is not seen as a criticism (or even an implied criticism), but as an essential element in their on-going professional development. __**Stage 4: self-evaluation: what have you learned?**__ This last question is directed in the first place at the trainee, but also, of course, applies to the supervisor. It is important for the trainee to have a chance to articulate what the lessons of the teaching experience have been for him or her. The supervisor has to listen carefully here, for this is an important indicator of the trainee’s powers of self-evaluation, and therefore self-improvement. Whether supervisors decide to share with the trainees what // they // have learned will no doubt depend on individual situations.

21. Sustaining interaction through group work
ADVANTAGES OF GROUP WORK Group work is a generic term covering a multiplicity of tehcniques in shich two or more ss. are assigned a task that involves collaboration and self initiated language. group work is solidly grounded in research principles, some advantages of group work:
 * 1) Group work generates interactive language: in traditional language classes teachers talk is dominant, group work helps to solve the problem of classes that are too largo to offer many opportunities to speak.
 * 2) group work offers an embracing affective climate: the second important advantage offered by group work is the security of a smaller group of ss. where each individual is no so starkly on public display, vulnerable to what the ss. may perceive as criticism and rejection. also small-group work is an increase in ss. motivation.
 * 3) group work promotes learner responsibility and autonomy: group work places responsibility for action and progress upon each of the members of the group, because it is difficult to hide in a small group.
 * 4) Group work is a step toward individualizing instruction: each ss. in a classroom has needs and abilities that are unique. Small groups can help ss. with varying abilities to accomplish seperate goals.

EXCUSES FOR AVOIDIING GROUP WORK
 * 1) The teacher is no longer in control of the class
 * 2) Students will use their native language
 * 3) SS. errors will be reinforced in small groups
 * 4) teacher can not monitor all groups at once
 * 5) Some learner prefer to work alone

IMPLEMENTING GROUP WORK IN YOUR CLASSROOM


 * SELECTING APPROPRIATE GROUP TECHNIQUES: pair work is more appropriate than group work for tasks tht are short, linguistically simple, quite controlled in terms of teh stdructure of the task, some typical tasks for group work : games, role.play simulations, drama, projects, interview, brainstorming, information gap, jigsaw, problem solving and decision making, opinion exchange


 * PLANNING GROUP WORK: once you have selected an appropriate type of activity, your planning phase should include the following seven rules for implementing a group technique:
 * 1) Introduce the technique
 * 2) justify the use of small groups for the technique
 * 3) model the technique
 * 4) give explicit detailed instructions
 * 5) divide the class into groups
 * 6) chech for clarification
 * 7) set the task in motion
 * MONITORING THE TASK: your job now becomes a facilitator and resource. To carry out your role, you need to trad the fine line between inhibiting the group process and bein a helper or guide. do not sit at your desk and grade papers, do not leave the room and take a break, do not spende an undue amount of time with one group at the expense of others, do not correct ss. errors unless asked to do so, do not assume a dominating or disruptive role while monitoring groups.
 * DEBRIEFING: it has two layers:
 * reporting on task objectives: as reporters or representatives of each group bring their findings of gthe groupsl then make sure thaty you leave enough time for this to take place.
 * Establishing affective support: a debriefing phase also serves the purpose of exploring the group process itself and of bringin the class back together as a whole community of learners.

22. Teacher development
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Student achievement is linked to numerous factors, but quality teachers are one of the most important components of student success. If a school district's teachers do not have the tools they need to teach students effectively, their students will suffer. To teach effectively, teachers need access to ongoing teacher [|professional development]. This professional development enables teachers to improve their own education through seminars, workshops, and classes. Through teacher professional development, teachers learn new teaching strategies to improve the quality of instruction. This allows them to make changes in the way they teach their students, incorporating innovative teaching methods in the classroom. It teaches them how to work with a variety of learning styles, since not all students learn the same way. It also helps teachers change their day-to-day teaching methods, encouraging them to accept new methods based on accurate [|education research]. Professional development usually takes place when school is not in session. Most teacher professional development occurs in the evening, on weekends, or during the summer. School districts also schedule professional development days throughout the school year. During these days, students are dismissed Teacher professional development is sometimes criticized because it sometimes does not provide teachers with the time, information, and activities they need to make changes within the classroom. For this reason, some professional development involves training throughout the school year. Mentors and coaches who are considered experts in new teaching methods and strategies meet with teachers during classroom instruction or teacher planning time. This can help teachers use what they have learned in a real-world setting, building a bridge between new concepts and classroom instruction. Effective teacher professional development is designed to strengthen teachers' knowledge of content. It is based on research and provides data that such new teaching methods culminate in improved student achievement. Teacher professional development should also closely align with a particular state's standards and the [|curriculum] used by the school district. Professional development should ideally be created by teachers with the support of those who work in the field of education research. All professional development should provide teachers with the necessary resources and support to implement changes in teaching strategies. Finally, professional development should provide teachers with the time they need to understand the new teaching methods and incorporate them in their teaching. early from school or have a day off from school. This provides teachers, teaching assistants, and administrative staff the opportunity to participant in training and workshops.

23. Teacher education: some current models
RAINING FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHERS (A REFLECTIVE APPROACH) by Michael J. Wallace PG 2 This chapter is about the programs for teacher training and techer aducation and their advanteges and disadvantages. The author also defines PROFESSIONS AND PROFESSIONALISM. How is professional expertise acquired? pg 5 He mentions 3 currently major models of professional education which have historically appeared on scene in the following order:

__1. The CRAFT MODEL__
The Craft Model is the oldest form of professional education and is still used today in ESL teacher education, albeit rather limitedly. Its conceptual basis, however, is widely utilized in practicum courses in which students work with classroom teachers, often called cooperating teachers. Its use in one course in a programme of ESL teacher education cannot be regarded as a model for an entire programme. The basic assumptions underlying this model are as follows:
 * In its most basic form, Craft Model consists of the trainee or beginner working closely with the expert teacher.
 * The practitioner is supposed to learn by imitating all the teaching techniques used by the experienced teacher.
 * Knowledge is acquired as a result of observation, instruction, and practice.
 * Merits:** The positive sides of this model are as follows:
 * The Craft Model of second language teacher education allows the learner to develop **experiential knowledge**, since the primary responsibilities of the learner are in the classroom.
 * It is one of the quickest models of ESL teacher education. Researches proved that students can imitate their teacher very quickly.
 * Demerits:** This model of ESL teacher education programme suffers from several shortcomings:
 * The most relevant strategies of training are provided by experts, thus the student-teachers play a passive role.
 * The Craft Model is essentially conservative. It does not account for any kind of change. It depends merely on imitation.
 * It does not handle the relevant scientific knowledge.
 * In this model there is no scope for developing one’s creativity since it does not allow suggesting new theories.

__2. The APPLIED SCIENCE MODEL__
The Applied Science Model is the traditional and perhaps still the most prevalent model underlying most ESL teacher education programmes. It was put forward by **Michael J. Wallace** in 1991 based on the **Technical Rationality** of **Donald A. Schön**. The model derives its authority from the achievements of emperical science, particularly in the 19th and the 20th centuries. The Applied Science Model emerges on the following assumptions:
 * Teaching is a science and as such can be examined rationally and objectively.
 * Teachers learn to be teachers by being taught research-based theories.
 * These theories are being conveyed to the students only by those who are considered to be the experts in the particular field.
 * Teachers are said to be educated when they become proficient enough to apply these theories in practice.
 * Merits:** The Applied Science Model has the following plus points:
 * This model takes into account the crucial element of the explosive growth of relevant scientific knowledge in recent times.
 * Its theory oriented study provides much opportunity for the learner to achieve received knowledge.
 * Demerits:** In spite of its wide-spread usage, it has some shortcomings:
 * Changes at the practical level applied by practitioners are not taken into account; therefore, their value is underestimated, thereby creating a separation between research and professional practice.
 * The most serious problem occurs when the students are asked to apply on their own the scientific theories they have learned in classroom.
 * Another shortcoming is the Applied Science Model’s failure to address adequately many of the important issues in teaching English. There has been relatively little research that directly concerns the teaching and learning of English in the classroom.
 * Many researchers claim that trainees who take courses based on the Applied Science Model feel that such courses do not help them develop professionally, that is, the theoretical studies are of no help.
 * Here the learner is passive, he cannot ask any question. He just follows the instructions of the expert.
 * The Applied Science Model is somewhat limited in scope as it does not take care of student- teachers’ self-development or awareness of their role not only as teachers but as teacher-researchers in their classrooms.
 * In Applied Science Model teaching is based on external knowledge, because it is essentially depended on rules and principles derived from preexisting knowledge sources.
 * The Applied Science Model is prescriptive since it advocates teachers to follow some proven teaching method instead of relying upon individual or intuitive theories of teaching and learning.
 * The Applied Science Model is a product oriented model. It slavishly follows various established methods and theories to improve teaching ability. In this model there is no scope for expressing one’s creativity.
 * Its major shortcoming is that it has not been able to deliver a relevant “scientific” solution to the various professional dilemmas that the teacher faces in real-life classroom situations.

__3. The REFLECTIVE MODEL__
The reflective practice has become a dominant paradigm in language teacher education research and programmes worldwide. But it is not an innovation in teaching. It has its roots in the work of a number of educational theorists and practitioners. Most definitions on reflective thinking found in the literature of teacher educatin are based on **Dewey’s** inquiry oriented concepts. In the 1980s, Dewey’s foundational aspects on reflection were further extended by the American sociologist **Donald A. Schön**. Later on, in 1991 **Michael J. Wallace** described Schön’s critique in a more explicit way. The Reflective Model is based on the assumption that teachers develop professional competence through reflecting on their own practice. In other words, a teaching experience is recalled and considered to reach an evaluation and to provide input into future planning and action. For Wallace a teacher education course should include two kinds of knowledge for it to be professionally structured: Wallace’s Reflective Model is applicable to both **pre-service** and **in-service** education. The model is separated it into three stages: Wallace presents the Reflective Model as a **cyclical process** in which the trainees are involved throughout their teaching experience. Such a cycle aims for continuous improvement and the development of personal theories of action. There is an assumption that the student-teachers already have some knowledge that they acquired as students and during the development of their English programme. Once the student-teachers have the opportunity to enter the classroom environment, they discover the actual framework of teaching and become aware of the different classroom situations. Thus, they start recalling about their performance during the teaching practice, how some experienced teachers deal with those situations, and also, how they themselves could manage them. So, they make some decisions and think about possible actions they could apply to their context. Or sometimes they simply reflect upon their classroom activities to evaluate their professional performance. Such a study helps them to figure out both the positive as well as the negative side of their teaching strategy. That means reflection helps them to avoid various future professional dilemmas by recalling and evaluating past experiences. The following illustration is a graphical representation of Wallace’s Reflective Model of professional education or development: This is a very common way in which **professional competence** is developed, and in it the process of **reflective practice** is clearly taking place, even though the practice element occurs outside the formal framework of the course. The use of reflective practice is obviously valid, but it should be noted that this sort of practice for professional education carries certain disadvantages:
 * **Received knowledge:** It is related to all the theories, concepts and skills that are studied during the student-teacher’s ELT methodology lessons.
 * **Experiential knowledge**: It is that knowledge which is developed by the trainees throughout their teaching practice.
 * 1) **The pre-training**: It is believed that the person who has decided to embark on professional education does not enter the progamme with blank mind. He has, at least, some pre-training knowledge about teaching.
 * 2) **The professional development**: It is the stage of professional education or development through theory and practice.
 * 3) **The professional competence**: The ultimate goal of this model is to increase professional competence.
 * The main disadvantage is that the experience is private, not shared.
 * The second disadvantage is the potential lack of focus in the discussion.
 * The third problem could well be the lack of structure in the mode of articulating reflection.
 * Ultimately, its flexibility and stress on participant initiative and input may cause lack of organisation and a pooling of ignorance, at the expense of genuine professional or personal progress.
 * Merits:** Reflective teaching is very much beneficial for teacher development. It offers more advantages than disadvantages:
 * Reflective practice helps the novice teachers become more aware of decision-making processes to help them determine the effect their decisions have in the context in which they are implemented.
 * Reflective Model is broad in scope since it enables teachers to investigate, and clarify their own classroom processes, and their individual theories of teaching and learning, instead of relying on some specific method of teaching.
 * The Reflective Model is a process oriented teaching approach since it provides an opportunity for the teacher to reveal his creative sides.
 * Reflective practice provides an opportunity for the teacher to find a self-defined solution for a particular classroom problem.
 * With a sharp contrast to the other models of teacher education, the Reflective Model does not treat the student-teacher as a passive participant. Here he works with his educator as a co-participant.
 * This is the only model that fulfills almost all the requirements for **teacher development**.

25. Teaching across age levels
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHILDREN AND ADULTS IN SECOND LANGUAGE ADCQUISITION:
 * studies have shown that adults,
 * can be superior in a number of aspects of acquisition,
 * they can retain a larger vocabulary,
 * they can utilize various deductive and anstract processes to shortcut the learning of grammatical and other linguistic concepts.
 * children´s fluency and naturalness are foten the envy of adults struggling with second languages, the context of classroom instruction may introduce some difficulties to children learning a second language.
 * to successfully teach children a second languaged requires specific skills and intuitions and differ from those appropriate for adult teaching

FIVE CATEGORIES OF PRACTICAL APPROACHES TO TEACHING CHILDREN:

RULES FOR THE CLASSROOM:
 * 1) INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT: children are centered on the here and now, on the functional purposes of language. They have little appreciation for adult notions of correctness and they can not grasp the metalanguage we use to describe and explain linguistic concepts.
 * do not explain grammar using terms
 * rules stated in abstract terms should be avoided
 * grammatical concepts can be called to learners attention by showing them certain patterns
 * concepts require more repetition than adults need.
 * teachers need to beanimated, lively and enthusistic about subject matter
 * a sense of humor will go a long way to keep childdren laughing and remember to put yourself in their shoes.
 * children have a lot of natural curiosity
 * make sure you tap into that curiosity whenever possible, and you will thereby help to maintain attention and focus..

2. SENSORY INPUT: 4. ATTENTION SPAN:
 * children need to have all five senses stimulated
 * pepper your lessons with physical activity
 * sensory aids help children to internalize concepts. The semell of flowers, the touch of plants, etc.
 * your own nonverbal language is important because children will indeed attend very sensitively to your facial features, gestures and touching.
 * 3. AFFECTIVE FACTORS:
 * children are extremely sensitive, especially to peers.
 * children are also much more fragile than adults.
 * their egos are still being shaped, and any slight nuance of communication can be negatively interpreted
 * teachers need to help them overcome such potential barriers to learning
 * teachers need to help them overcome such potential barriers to learning
 * what is attention span?
 * since language leson can at times be difficult for childfre, your job is to make them interesting, lively and fun.
 * HOW?
 * activities should be designed to capture their immediate attention.
 * lessons need variety of activities

5. MEANINGFUL LANGUAGE:
 * children are focused on how actually language is used for here and now.
 * are les willing to put up with language that 7.is not authentic.
 * language needs to be firmly context embedded.
 * a whole language approach is essential.
 * if language is broken into too much bits and pieces, ss. will not see the relationship to be whole.
 * an elmentary school teacher develops a certain intutition with increasing months and years of experience.

6. TEACHING ADULTS:
 * Rules for teaching children can apply in some ways to teaching adults.
 * adults have superior cognitive abilities that can render them more successful
 * their level of shyness can be equal to or greater than that of children.
 * adults are more able to handle abstract rules and concepts.
 * adults have longer attention spans
 * adults often bring a modicum of general self-confidence (global self-esteem) into a classroom.
 * adults, withtheir more developed abstract thinking ability, are better able to understand a context reduced segment of language.
 * authenticity and meaningfulness are of course still highly important.

7. TEACHING TEENS:
 * A child does not cease to be a child at the age of puberty and taht all of the rules of adult teaching suddenly apply.
 * The terrible teens are an age of transitions, confusion, self consciousness, growin and changin bodies and minds.
 * complex problems can be solved with logical thinking
 * but, success of any intellectual endeavor will be a factor of the attention a lerner places on the task.
 * attention spans are lengthening as result of intellectual maturation.
 * factors surrounging ego, self-image, and self-esteem are at their pinnacle
 * teens are ultrasensitive to how other perceive their changing physical and emotional selves along with their mental capabilities.
 * avoid embarrasment of students.
 * affirm each student´s talents and strengths.
 * allow mistakes and other errors to be accepted
 * enocurage small group work where risks can be taken more easily by a teen.

26. Teaching across proficiency levels:

 * 1) **BEGINNER LEVEL:**
 * Student´s cognitive learning processes: students are at the beginning learning with az focus controlled mode, the sutudents is starting to find out genuine information about the target language, we see few little changes in the student.
 * The teachér´s role: Teacher lectures or teacher fronted classroom is meaningful and appropriate during this level; student is very dependent on the teacher. The teacher has to be prepared with topics, activity types, time-on-task, the teacher has to keep the student´s interested when he or she initiates a few questions and comments in the target language.
 * Authenticity of language: the teacher needs to use simple phrases, greetings and introduction through the use of authentic language that will give the student the opportunity to preactice their new language.
 * Fluency and accuracy: the teacher´s job is to help student´s accuracy and fluency giving the student´s enough confidence and the worry free of being corrected every second, loosing the fear of speaking. Accuracy should be centered on the particular grammatical, phonological elements being practiced.

2. INTERMEDIATE LEVEL:


 * Student´s cognitive learning process: students brains are like neurological computers where the information is being saved or stored, teachers has to provide automaticity for the student´s mental process, the number of phrases, sentences and structures that the student can apply has increased and they can now be applied automatically.
 * The teacher´s role: the teacher should provide an encouragin atmosphere, since the students are now able to communicate information, asks question, make commentza dnparticipate in class in the target language, now the classes can be more students-centered and oriented to the student´s diversity in learning, taking advantage of this and using more pair work activities.
 * Teacher talk: the teacher needs to be using very little exposure to native language, the teacher´s speech should be at a natural and clear pace and should allow student´s speaking time.
 * Authenticity of language. this is the time when students constantly ask about grammatical structure and accutracy, this way of analyzing everything will drive them away from authentic, real language.
 * Fluency and accuracy: some students at this level are too concerned about accuracy and seem to be either oo worried about the grammatical structures and why they actually grammatically incorrect-

3. ADVANCED LEVELS:
 * Student´s cognitive learning process: the teacher now is assisting students since they have more confidence and have a claear understanding and interactive communication.
 * The role of the teacher: now the teacher is more of a moderator, since the students can basically go through the entire class working by themselves, only about a twenty five per cent or your class plan may be fulfilled, the student now becomes more independent.
 * Teacher talk: the teacher is now a provider and is there to give a lot of feedback, speech should be at a natural and fluent speed, students should be hallenged with different grammatical structures, vocabulary, idioms and others. Basically the whole class is given in the target language.

Douglas Brown (2001) also points to twelve principles on which the essence of an approach to language teaching can be based. Together with good practice, these twelve principles can form the basis on which teachers can plan, carry out and reflect on their lessons. Douglas Brown (2001) outlines his principles under the following headings: There are different principles to take into account while teaching, there are twelve different teaching principles divided in three main ones as follows: COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLES
 * 27. Teaching by Principles:[[file:Teaching Principles.pdf]] ** questions
 * 1) Automacity
 * 2) Meaningful Learning
 * 3) Anticipation of Reward
 * 4) Intrinsic Motivation
 * 5) Strategic Investment
 * 6) Language ego
 * 7) Self-confidence
 * 8) Taking Risks
 * 9) The Connection between Language and Culture
 * 10) The Influence of the Native Language
 * 11) Interlanguage
 * 12) Communicative Competence
 * 1) COGNITIVE PRINCIPLE
 * Automaticity: it is the ability to complete an activity or taks without going step by step or stopping to think about it. The brain develops automaticity because the beginning of tasks are always followed by a series of sequential steps, when ss. Repeat the information several times, the brain is thinking in an easy way, when the ss. Have developed automaticity their brains will be able to reduce the working memory by 90%.It is based in the principle of how babies and children learn a language, when we are kids we do not know about language structure, we automatically talk, we do it naturally without thinking about the grammatical structure.
 * Meaningful Learning: it leads toward better long-term retention than rote learning. This is the type of teaching-learning process in which learner can learn focused in things that they previously know, in order to understand new functional content or information for them. Here we relate the information to previous knowledge, to ss. Everyday situations, using cross-curricular connections associating sounds, words, structures, previous everyday experience.

MEANINGFUL LEARNING MUST BE: v Active: learners have to interact with their environment manipulate objects and see all the effects of this interaction. v Constructive: learners have to understand the activities and observations v Intentional: learners have to control their own learning process in order to achieve a goal. v Cooperative: learners need the help of other in order to have a better communication so they require conversations and group experiences. v TEACHER ´ S ROLE IN MEANINGFUL LEARNING: FACILITATOR v SS. ROLE: interaction with knowledge need to reflect in the content that they are learning and decide which information that is important to apply


 * THE ANTICIPATION OF REWARD: Human beings are universally driven to act or behave by the anticipation of some sort of reward tangible or untangible, short term or long term. Why are rewards important in teaching? With this type of motivation the teacher would be able to have the response that she or he wants from her students, with rewarding the teacher will be able to motivate some ss. That do not have an intrinsic interest in a specific topic or subject

THE PURPOSE OF REWARD: to encourage the ss. To do or take a different attitude, respect a topic or a class, then it is important because with rewarding you can increase the intrinsic interest that a learner can have., we have to be careful with not abusing with extrinsic rewards because it can actually reduce their intrinsic interest, extrinsic rewards are useful when there is no intrinsic interest to start with, then it is good to use extrinsic forces. Extrinsic rewards can be controlling when a teacher promises a reward, the teacher is essentially controlling his or her ss. By tempting them with external factors that do not even relate to the task itself. It has been found that quealities cuah as creativity and cognitive reasoning are diminished when ss. Are working for a reward.
 * INTRINSIC MOTIVATION: the most powerful rewards are those that are intrinsically motivated withing the learner, because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, not externally administered reward is necessary. Classroom techniques have a much greater chance for success if they are self-rewarding in the perception of the learner, the learner perfom the task because it is fun, interesting, useful, or challenging and not because they anticipate some cognitive or affective reward from the teacher.
 * STRATEGIC INVESTMENT: it is and individual way of organizing and using a particular set of skills in order to learn useful content. Succesful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to a learner ´ s own personal investment of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language.


 * 1) AFFECTIVE PRINCIPLE: These principles are characterized by the emotional involvement: here we include the feelings about oneself, about relationships in a community of learner, and about the emotional relation between language and culture.

STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPING SELF-CONFIDENCE. v Emphazise strengths: this means to give credit for everything learners try, by focusing on what they can do. v Take risks: try new experiences as opportunities to learn v Self-evaluate: ss., should learn to evaluate themselves independently, not only with the opinions of others.
 * LANGUAGE EGO: When learning a second language, humans develop a new mode of thinking, feeling and acting, this means, a second identity, it is related with the second language, and this can create a sense of fragility to the learner, when sometimes they fell silly or humiliated. Students create an inner protective shield, as they fell self-conscious about their second language learning level. Teachers can hel relief this situation providing affective support: having a supportive attitude toward the ss., the patience and empathy must be communicated when learners have fragile language egos. The techniques that are used should be cognitively challenging but now overwhelming at an affective level.
 * SELF CONFIDENCE: it is an attitude, which allows individuals to have positive, realistic views of themselves and their situations, for example when learners know that they are capable of accomplishing a task. Confidence has to be based on observed reality, this means, on the achievement of performance goals, ss., should be confident that they will perform up to their current abilities, the success must be measured in terms of achievement of personal goals, not achievement goals such as winning.

HOW CAN TEACHERS ENCOURAGE RISK-TAKING: create an atmosphere that encourages ss. To try out language, provide techniques not too hard nor too easy, respond to students ´ risky attempts with positive affirmation, praising them for trying while at the same time warmly but firmly attending to their language.
 * RISK TAKING: ss., who are risk takers will take calculated risks in attempting to use language, they will become gamblers, because they will not be scared of trying new things, even if they make some mistakes, ss., who are risk takers are willing to perform challenging taks, choose task involving reasonable or intermediate risks, rather than excessive risk, share and advocate ideal they believe in, even when those ideas are unconventional, they are willing to be incorrect and take on tasks that might result in errors.


 * THE LANGUAGE-CULTURE CORRECTION: language and culture are intrinsically related, when someone learns a language, will also learn something of the culture of the speakers of that language, this principle focuses on the complex interconnection of language and culture, such as custom, values, and ways of thinking, feeling and acting. Cross-cultural understanding is an important facet of learning and language, students can be affected by the process of acculturation that is the learning of a new culture, which will vary with the context and the goals of learning.


 * 1) LINGUISTIC PRINCIPLE: These are the language learning factors that focus on language itself and how learners deal with complex linguistic systems, these are the followings:


 * THE NATIVE LANGUAGE EFFECT: a learner ´ s native language creates both facilitating and interfering effects on learning, the interfering effects are likely to be the most silent. The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on the acquisition of the target language system. Classroom suggestions: use the learners ´ errors to give feedback, help your ss., understand that their native language can be helpful rather than damaging, try to coax ss. Into thinking in the second language directly.

Classroom suggestions: some interlanguage forms may arise out of student ´ s logical developmental process, so teachers need to be tolerant, don ´ t make a ss. Feel bad about his errors, try to get ss. To self-correct selected errors, provide affective and cognitive feedback.
 * INTERLANGUAGE: It is a structured grammatical system, constructed by the learner, It is the relation between the target language and the native language, a language learner may acquire forms of language that are in between their first language and their target language.

Aspects of Communicative competence: v Linguistic competence: it has to do with achieving and internalizing functional knowledge of the elements and structures of the language, It is knowing how to use the grammar, syntax, and vocabulary of a language,. Linguistic competence asks: what words do I use? How do I put them into phrases and sentences? v Pragmatic competence: it is the one that has to do with how language is used in communication situation to achieve the speaker ´ s purposes. v Strategic competence: it is knowing how to recognize and repair communication breakdowns or mistakes, how to work with the language abilities you already have, and how to learn more about the language.
 * COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: language teaching is based on the idea that the goal of language acquisition is communicative competence, the ability to use the language correctly and appropriately to accomplish communication goals.

28. Teaching listening:
SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT LISTENING COMPREHENSION :


 * what are listeners doing when they listen?
 * what factors affect good listening?
 * what are the characteristics of real-life listening?
 * what are manythings listeners listes for?
 * what are some principles ofr designing listening techniques?
 * How can listening techniques be interactive?
 * What are some common techniques for teaching listening?

TYPES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE: it can be transactional: divided in unfamiliar and familiar. WHAT MAKES LISTENING DIFFICULT?
 * MONOLOGUE: it can be planned and unplanned
 * DIALOGUE: it can be Interpersonal which are those that promote social relationships,divided in unfamiliar and familiar
 * 1) CLUSTERING: it helps students to break down a speech int samller groups of words., teachers need to help students to pick out manageable clusters of words.
 * 2) REDUNDANCY: it consists on repeating the same information with different words for example using, I mean, you know, it helps the hearer to process meanings by offering more time and extra information.
 * 3) REDUCED FORMS: It is the dropping of strong vowels when a syllable is given a weak stress.
 * 4) PERFORMANCE VARIABLES: this are hesitations-when the speaker doubts about what he is saying also false-starts when the apeaker begins to talk, and then stops because he does not know more and also causes and corrections: when the speaker repeats tghe information using different words.
 * 5) COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE: when the speaker uses idioms and slang, is more difficult for listeners to understand because they are used to deal with standard language.
 * 6) RATE OF DELIVERY: fast speakers.
 * 7) STRESS, RHYTHM AND INTONATION:
 * 8) INTERACTION.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM LISTENING PERFORMANCE:


 * REACTIVE: learners listen to the surface structure of an utterance i order to repeat it back to the teacher.
 * INTENSIVE: by choral and individual drills the teacher reinforces students to repeat words and isten to specific elements like intonation, stress and contractions.
 * RESPONSIVE. students listen to short streches of language in order to rrespond with on appropriate re´ly, it could be a question, a commanda, a clarification or comprehension.
 * SELECTIVE: it consists on scanning certain information in longer stretches of a discourse, the purpose is to find important information like: stories, anecdotes, speeches, news, broadcasts and conversations.
 * EXTENSIVE: this develops a top-down global understanding of spoken language, sutdents listen to lectures or conversarions in order to find a comprehensive message or purpose.
 * INTERACTIVE: students participate in discussions, debates, conversation, role plays and idividual or group work

BARRIERS TO ACTIVE LISTENING:
 * environmental barriers
 * phsysiological barriers
 * selective listening
 * negative listening attitudes
 * personal reactions
 * poor motivation

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING LISTENING TECHNIQUES:
 * 1) In an interactive, four-skill curriculum make sure that you do not over look the importance of techniques that specifically develop listening comprehension competence.
 * 2) use techniques that are intrinsically motivating
 * 3) utilize authentic langauge and contexts
 * 4) carefully consider the form of listener´s response.
 * 5) enocurage the development of listener´s strategies.
 * 6) include both bottom-up and top-down listening techniques. Bottom.up: processing proceeds from sounds to words to grammatical relationships to lexical meaning, etc. to a final message. Top-down: it is evoked from a n¿bank of prior knowledge and global expectations and other background information that the listener brings to the text

LISTENING TECHNIQUES FROM BEGINNING TO ADVANCED: 2. INTERMEDIATE:
 * 1) BEGINNERS:
 * Bottom-up excersises: discrimination between intonation contours in sentences, discriminating bwtween phonemes, selective listening for morphological endings, selecting details from the text (word recognition), listening for normal sentnece word order-
 * Top-down excersises: discriminating between emotional reactions, getting the gist of a sentence, recognizing the topic.
 * interactive excercises: build a semantic network of word associations, recognize a familiar word and relate it to a category, following directions.
 * Bottom-up exercises: recoignizing fast speech forms, finding the stressed syllable, recognizing words with reduced syllables, recognize words as they are linked in the speech stream, recognizing pertinent details in the speech stream.
 * top-down exercises: analyze discourse structure to suggest effective listening strategies, listen to identify the speaker or the topic, listen to evaluate themes and motives, finding main ideas and supporting details, makin inferences.
 * Interactive exercises: discriminating between registers of speech and tones of voice, recognize missing grammar markers in colloquial speech

29. Teaching reading
SOME HIGHLIGHTS ABOUT TEACHING READING


 * 1) BOTTON-UP AND TOP-DOWN PROCESSINING: the distinction between bottom.up and top-down processing became a cornerstone of reading methodology for years to come, **in bottom-up processing**, reader must first recognize a myltiplicity of linguistic signal (letters, morphemes, syllables, words, phrases, grammatical cues, discourse markers) and use their linguistic data-processing mechanisms to impose some sort of order on theses signals. **Top-down or conceptually driven processing:** it is in which we draw on our won intelligence and edxperience to understan a text. Christine Nuttal compares bottom.up processes with the image of a scientist with a magnifying glass or microscope exsminin all the minute details of some phenomenon, while too-down processing is like taking an eagle´s eye view of a landscape below. More recent research on teaching reading has shown that a combination of top.down and bottom-up processing, or what has come to be called nteractive reading, is almost alyas a primary ingredient in successful teaching methodology necause both processes are important.
 * 2) SCHEMA THEORY AND BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE: How do readers construct meaning? how do they decide what to hold on to, and having made that decision, how do they infer a writer´s message? these are the sorts of question addressed by what has come to be known as **schema theory**, the hallmark of which is that a text does not by itself carry meaning. The reader bring information, knowledge, emotion, experience, and culture-that is, **schemata**
 * 3) THE ROLE OF AFFECT AND CULTURE: Affective factors play major roles in ultimate success. Just as language ego, self-esteem, empathy, and motivation undergird the acquisition of spoken discourse, reading is subject to variability within tghe affrective domain. TRhe love of reading has propelled many a learner to successsful acquisition of reading skills. Instructions has been found to be effective when ss. self-esteem is high.
 * 4) THE POWER OF EXTENSINVE READING: Our working definition of "extensive reading" as a language teaching/learning procedure is that it is reading (a) of large quantities of material or long texts; (b) for global or general understanding; (c) with the intention of obtaining pleasure from the text.
 * 5) ADULT LITERACY TRAINNING:

TYPES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE There are literally hindreds of different types of written texts, a much larger varitety than found in spoken texts, each of the types listed below represents, or is an example of, a genre of written language.
 * non-fiction: reports, editorial, essays and articles, reference (dictionaries, encyclopedias)
 * fiction: novel, short stories, jokes, drama, poetry
 * letter: personal, business
 * greeting cards
 * diaries, journals
 * memos
 * messages
 * announcements
 * newspapers
 * academic writing: tests, reports, essays, papers, books
 * forms, application, questionaries
 * directions
 * label, sign, recipes
 * bills and other financial statement, maps, manuals, menus, schedules etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE


 * Permanence: written language is permanence because after you have written something you can come back and and re-write or correct, unlike spoken language that once it has been said, it is gone.
 * Processing time: Most reading contexts allow readers to read at their own rate. They are not forced into followin the rate of delivery, as in spoken language.
 * Distance: the written word allows messages to be sent acvross twpo dimensions: physical distance ant temporal distance. readers can not confromt an author and say, now, what exactly did you mean?
 * Orthography: In writing we have graphemes, this is punctuation, pictures, or charts.
 * Complexity: you might be tempeted to say athat writing is more complex than speech, but in reality, that would be difficult to demostrate. Writing and speech represent different modes of complwxity, and the mos salient diffrerence is in the nature of clauses.
 * Vocabulary: it is true that written English typically utilizes a greater variety of lexical item than spoken conversational English.
 * Formality: it refers to prescribed forms that certain written messages must adhere to.

MICROSKILSS FOR READING COMPREHENSION, STRATEGIES FOR READING COMPREHENSION
 * 1) Identify the purpose in reading
 * 2) Use graphemic rules and átterns to aid in bottom-ip decoding (especially for beginning level learners)
 * 3) Use efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension (for intermeditate to advanced levels)
 * 4) Skim the text for main ideas
 * 5) Scan the text for specific information
 * 6) Use semantic mapping or clustering
 * 7) Guess when you are not certain
 * 8) analyze vocabulary
 * 9) Distinguish between literal and implied meanings
 * 10) Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationships

TYPES OF CLASSROOM READING PERFORMANCE
 * 1) Oral and silent reading
 * 2) Intensive and Extensive reading: Silent reading may be categorized into Intensive and Extensive reading. Intensive Reading is usually a classroom-oriented activity in which sst. focus on the linguistic or semantic details of a passage, intensive reading calls ss. attention to gramatical forms, discourse markers, and other surface structure details for the purpose of understanding literal meaning, implications, rethorical relationships, and the like. Extensive Reading: it is carried out to achieve a general understanding of a usually somewhat longer text (book, long article or essays) most extensive reading is performed outside of class time, pleasure reading is often extensive.

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING INTERACTIVE READING TECHNIQUES


 * 1) In an interactive curriculum, make sure that you do not overlook the importance of specific instruction in reading skills.
 * 2) use techniques that are intrinsically motivating
 * 3) Balance authenticity and readability in choosing texts
 * 4) Encourage tghe development of reading strategies
 * 5) Include both bottom-up and top-down techniques
 * 6) Follow the SQ3R, sequence: survey (skim the text for an overview of main ideas), Question (the readers asks question about what he or she wishes to get out of the text) read ( read the text while looking for answers to the previously formulated question) recite ( reprocess the salient points of the text through oral or written language) review ( asses the importance of what one has just read and incorporate it into long-term associations

7.Subdivide your techniques into pre-reading during reading, and after reading phrases.
 * Before you read: spend some time introducing a topic, encouragin skimming, scanning, predictina and activating schemata.
 * While you read: not all reading is simply extensive or global reading. give ss. a sense of purpose for reading rather than just reading because your ordered it.
 * After you read: comprehension question are just one form of activity appropriate for post-reading, also consider vocabulary study, identifying the author´s purpose, etc.

8. Build in some evaluative aspect to your techniques

30. Teaching speaking
WHAT IS SPEAKING? It is the productive aural-oral skill, it consists of producing systematic verbal utterances CHANNEL: it refers to the medium of the message: aural-oral or written. PRODUCTIVE SPEAKING: language generated by the learner in writing or speech. RECEPTIVE SPEAKING: language directed at the learner in reading or listening.

TYPES OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE.
 * MONOLOGUE: It is when a person gives a long and tedious speech, one kindo of monologue is extensive monologue, when ss. are called on to give extensive monologues, these can be planned or unplanned.


 * 1) PLANNED MONOLOGUE: it is when you prpare your speech with anticipation, for example expositions, conferences, etc.
 * 2) UNPLANNED MONOLOGUE: it is when you improvise your speech, without a previous preparation, for ex. conversations.

SPOKEN LANGUAGE VS. WRITTEN LANGUAGE
 * DIALOGUE: two or more persons exchanging ideas, dialogues can be Transacitional or Interpersonal
 * 1) TRANSACTIONAL DIALOGUE: carried out for the purpose of exchanging specific information
 * 2) INTERPERSONAL: carried out to maintanin social relationships
 * SPOKEN LANGUAGE: auditory, temporary,immediate reception, prosody (rythm, stress intonation), immediate feedback, planning and editing limited
 * WRITTEN LANGUAGE: visual, permanent, punctuation, delayed or no feedback, unlimited planning, editing, revision.

SPEAKING DIFFICULTIES:
 * CLUSTERING: teacher helps students to speak in a structural and fluently way, not wordk by word
 * REDUNDANCY: the speaker takes time to process the meaning of the message through the redundancy of language.
 * REDUCED FORMS: these are all the problems in teaching speaking as contractions, elisions, reduced vowels, etc. student´s don´t develop a stilted bookish queality of speaking, it means that they speak as they write
 * PERFORMANCE VARIABLES: the process of thinking as you speak allows you to express in a carrectly way by pausing and hesitating.
 * COLLOQUIAL LANGUAGE: teach phrases, words and idioms of colloquial language to your students and make sure they practice in producing these forms.
 * 1) RATE OF DELIVERY: teacher helps learners to achieve an acceptable speed along wih other attibutes of fluency
 * 2) STRESS, RHYTHM AND INTONATION: This is the most important characteristic of English pronunciation. The stress-rhythm and intonation patterns convey important messages.
 * 3) INTERACTION: maintain a conversation with creativity and a command of language.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM SPEAKING PERFORMANCE:


 * IMITATIVE: It is carried out for focusing in an element of language form, students practice intonation and pronunciation.
 * INTENSIVE: Include any speaking performance that reinforce some phonological and grammatical aspects of language
 * RESPONSIVE: short replies to teacher or student initiated questions or comments, are usually sufficient and do not extend into dialogues.
 * TRANSACTIONAL: carried out for the purpose of exchangin specific information, it is an extendend form of responsive language.
 * INTERPERSONAL: its purpose to maintain social relationships, it is a tricker conversation because it involves colloquial language, sarcasm, emotions, slang
 * EXTENSIVE: students are called on to give extended monologues, these monologues can be planned or unplanned.

PRINCIPLES FOR TEACHING SPEAKING:


 * 1) Be aware of the differences between second language and foreing language learning contexts: foreing language (FL) is one where the TL is not the language of communication. (ex. learning english in japan or studying french in america). A second language context (SL) is one where the TL is the language of communication in the society.
 * 2) give ss. practice with both fluency and accuracy: __Accuracy__: it is the extento to shich ss. speech matches what people actually say when they use the target language. __Fluency:__ it is the extent to which speakers use the language quickly and confidently, with few hesitations, unnatural pauses, false starts, word searches, etc.

3. .provide opportunities for ss. to talk by using group work or pair work and limiting teacher talk: pair work and group work activities can be used to increase the amount of time that learners get to speak in the target language during lessons. 4.plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning: what learners need is not necessrily simplication of the linguistic forms but rather an opportunity to interact with other speakers, working together to reach mutual comprehension.

WHAT CAN BE DONE: 5.design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional and interactional speaking:
 * comprehension checks: efforts by the native speaker to ensure that the learner has understood
 * Clarification requests: efforts by learners to get the native speaker to clarify something that the has not been understood
 * self-repetition or paraphrase.
 * Interactional speech: communicating for social purposes
 * transactional speech: communicating to get something done, including the excahnge of goods and services.

CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES AND TASKS: information gap, jigsaw activities, tango seating, role-plays, simulations, contact assignments, speaking in the classroom, true conversation, equal conversation, teaching speaking. SPEAKING INCLUDES THE ORAL PRODUCTION OF MANY DIFFERENT GENRES: reciting poems, debates, class discussions.. TRUE CONVERSATION: outcome is not predetermined or wholly governed by any one participant EQUAL CONVERSATION: people are normally free to take turns, ask questions, change topic. TEACHING SPEAKING: plan activities for samall groups-pairs skills without teacher dominating the discussion.

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING SPEAKING TECHNIQUES:


 * 1) use techniques taht cover the spectrum of learner needs,from language-based foucs on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning and fluency.
 * 2) Provide intrinsically motivating techniques
 * 3) Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts
 * 4) provide appropriate feedback and corrections
 * 5) capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening
 * 6) give students opportunities to initiate oral communication
 * 7) encourage the development of speaking strategies

TEACHING CONVERSATION: according to Richrads, two major approaches characterize current teaching of conversation, and INDIRECT APPROACH in which learner are more or less set loose to engage in interaction, and a DIRECT APPROACH that involves planning a conversation program around the specific microskills, strategies, and processes that are involved in fluent conversation.

31. Teaching writing
SOME ISSUES ABOUT TEACHING WRITING TO SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS:
 * 1) Composing vs. writing
 * 2) Process vs. Product
 * 3) Contrastive Rhetoric
 * 4) Difference between L1 and L2 writing
 * 5) Authenticity
 * 6) The role of the teacher

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE: A WRITER´S VIEW:
 * 1) Permanence: once something is writen down and delivered in its final form to its intended audience,

2. Production Time: This refers to the fact that if ss. have enough time and are not working under pressure, they can become good writers. 3. Distance: writers need to be able to predict the audience´s general knowledge, cultural and literary shcemata, specific subject.matter knowledge and very important how, their coice of language will be interpreted.

4. Orthography: for ss. whose native language system is not aplhabetic, new symbols have to be produced by hands that may have become accustomed to anhother system. we must pay attention if their phoneme-grapheme system is different from the target language.

5. Complexity: writers must learn how to remove redundancy, how to combine sentences, how to make references to other elemtns in a text, how to create syntactic adn lexical variety, and much more.

6. Vocabulary: writen language places a heavier demand on vocabulary use than does speaking. Good writers will learn to take advantage of the richness of English vocabulary.

7. Formality: for ESL students the most difficult and complex conventions occur in academic writing where sutudents have to learn how to describe, explain, compare, contras, illusstrate, defend, criticize and argue.

MICROSKILLS FOR WRITING:


 * Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English.
 * produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose.
 * produce an acceptable core of words and use apprpopriage word order patterns and ruless
 * express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms
 * use cohesive devices in written discourse
 * use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse
 * apprppriately accomplish the communicative functions of written texta ccording to form and purpose.
 * convey links and connections between events adn commucnicate such realtions as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification.
 * distinguish between literal and implied meaning when writing
 * correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written text.
 * deveñlop and use a battery of writing strategiesf, such as accurately assessing the audience´s interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using parapharases and synonims, soliciting peer and istructor feedback, and using feedbacdk for revising and editing.

TYPES OF CLASSROOM WRITING PERFORMANCE:

PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING WRITING TECHNIQUES
 * 1) IMITATIVE OR WRITING DOWN: at the beg. level of learning to write, ss. will simply write down english letters, words, and possibly sentences in order to learn the conventions of the orthographic code.
 * 2) INTENSIVE OR CONTROLLED: writing is sometimes used as a production mode for learning, reinforcing or testing grammatical concepts. This intensive writing typically appears in controlled, written grammar exercises.
 * 3) SELF-WRITING: a significant proprotion of classroom writing may be devoted to self-writing, or writing with only the self in mind as an audience. The most salient instance fo this category in classroom is note-taking, where ss. take notes during a lecture for the purpose of later recall. dairy journal or a dialogue journal also fall into this category.
 * 4) DISPLAY WRITING: writing within the school curricular context is a way of life. For all language ss. short answer exercises, essay examinations and even research reports will involve an element of display
 * 5) Real writing: it has three subacategories as follws: Academic, vocational-technical and personal writing.


 * 1) INCORPORATE PRACTICES OF GOOD WRITERS: various thing that efficient writers do:
 * focus on goal or main idea in writing
 * perceptively gauge their audience
 * spend some time (but not too much) planning to write
 * easily let the first ideas flow onto the paper
 * follow a general orgvanizational plan as they write
 * solicit and utilize feedback on their writing
 * are not wedded to certain surface strucdtures,
 * revise their work willingly and efficiently
 * patiently make as many revision as needed.

2. BALANCE PROCESS AND PRODUCT: because writing is a composng proces, and ussually requires multiple drafts before an effective product is created, make sure that ss. are carefully led through appropriate stages in teh process of composing.

EVALUATING STUDENT WRITING

34. Technology in the classroom
As technology advances, it can be difficult to keep up and adapt to the advancements in both our personal and professional lives. Teachers have an especially important role to play in technological advancements, as incorporating technology in the classroom can be both a learning tool for students and a teaching tool for the instructor. Kids seem to be adapting to the rapid advancements in technology better than many adults, and they actually embrace it. For this reason, incorporating technology in the classroom is a great way to increase a child’s interest in learning. There are numerous ways that teachers can use technology in the classroom and many are already doing it. Some districts use interactive Smart Boards in place of traditional chalk or [|white boards] in their classroom. These flat screen monitors are networked with the teacher’s classroom computer and the school’s internet connection. [|Interactive lessons] in math, spelling, science and other subjects can be put on screen for students to participate in. The boards use [|touch screen] technology and in some cases, kids are given handheld remote “clickers” that act as controllers for answering questions presented on screen. Many school districts have made it easy for teachers to use technology in the classroom with supportive technology departments and funding, but others are still behind for budget reasons. In those cases, teachers can still utilize technology in the classroom in more unconventional ways. Some teachers encourage middle and high school students to sign up for email updates or text message alerts to receive homework assignments and reminders for tests and projects. Many kids respond well to these types of communications and thus, respond better to the assignments themselves. Educational book publishers have also jumped on board the proverbial technological bandwagon by making books available online and interactive activities that supplement the [|curriculum] being taught. Many teachers take advantage of these supplemental activities by permitting kids to go online during class to complete them or encouraging children to visit the publisher’s websites and complete the activities at home. Similarly, many of these ancillary websites, as well as other [|computer software], allow teachers to track their students’ progress and understanding of material. Most classrooms today provide access to computers and other sources of technology. Incorporating that technology in the classroom and daily lesson plans can be a challenge for many teachers, as they must choose the most efficient means of delivering a lesson and the assignments that reinforce it while staying on target with imposed standards. However, many teachers are finding that once they incorporate technology in the classroom, it benefits their students by engaging them in ways they are familiar with and enjoy, which ultimately makes their job easier.

35. The post method era: toward informed approaches page 40 Chapter 3 - Brown Teaching by Principles

 * ==36. The present: An informed “approach” see pages 40 - 50 Teaching by Principles, Douglas B.)==

An Enlightened, Eclectic Approach: As an enlightened, eclectic teacher you think in terms of a number of possible methodological option at your disposal for tailoring classes to particular contexts, your approach takes on great importance it includes a number of basic principles of learning and teaching on which you can rely for designing and evaluatying classroom lesson.

//__task based activities, and communication for the real world, meaningful purposes”__// The main objective of CLT is to develop the communicative competence of the learners. Learners are involved in the learning process so that language developsautomatically. All the basic four skills get equal emphasis. PERSPECTIVES OF THE CLT:
 * Communicative Language Teaching -->** //__“an approach to language teaching methodology that emphasizes authenticity, interaction, student-centered learning,__//
 * content based, tasks based, participatory approach,


 * Learner Centered InstructionÑ
 * Cooperative and Collaborative Learning:
 * Interactive Learning: when you speak the extento to which your inteded message is receiveis a factor of both your production and the listener´s perception, it is a product of a give and take, an atempt to communicate, interactive classes will most likely be found: doing a lot of pair work and group work, language input in real-world context, producing language for meaningful communication, performing classroom taks for the use out there.


 * Whole Language Education: language is regarded holistically, not as pieces, ss. work top down, not buttom up, teachers provide contenti-rich curriculum (see error not as part fo learning, learning best served by collaboration among teachers and students) examples: reading: language experience approach, Writing: process writing and journal keeping. ??????????
 * Conent-Based Instruction: competency based instruction especially adult immigrants, learning survival and life-coping skills????????
 * Task-Based Instruction: aim to provide ss with natural context for language use, ss. work to complete tasks, ss. have opportunities to interact, central purpose we are concerned with this language learning, and tasks present htis in the form of a problem-solving negotiation between knowledge that the learner holds and new knowdlege