TECHNIQUES

= Techniques =

Unit one: // Effective Presentation //
The term is applied here not only to the kind of limited and controlled modelling of a target irem that we do when we introduce a new word or grammatical structure, but also to the initial encounter with comprehensible input in the form of spoken or written texts, as well as various kinds of explanations, intructions and discussion of new language items or tasks. another contribution of effective teacher presentation of new mateiral in formal courses is that they can help to activate and harnes lerarners attention, effort, intelligence and conscious learning strategies in order to enhance learning. presentations may often not occur at the first stage of learning, they may be given after learners have already engaged with thelanguage in question, as when we clarigy the meaning of a word during a discussio, or read aloud a text learner have previously read to themselves. Thje ability to mediate new material or instruct effectively is an essential teaching skill, it enables the teacher to facilitate learners entry into an understanding of new material, and thus promotes further learning.


 * What happens in an effective presentation? **


 * // __Attention:__ the learners are alert, paying attention to the teacher and material to be learnt, you have to make sure that in fact they are attending and the material being perceived is interesting in itself. //


 * // __Perception:__ the learners see or hear the material clearly, it need to ble clearly visible and audible, it also means repeating it in order to give added opportunities for or reinforce perception, it is also good to get some kind of response from the learners to make sure that they have perceived de material accurately. //


 * // __Understanding:__ the learners understand the meaning of the material being introduced and its connection with other things they already know, so teachers need to illustrate, make links with previously learnt material. A response from the learners again can give you an idea of how well they understood. //


 * // __Short term memory:__ the students need to take the material into short term memory, to remember it until later in the lesson, so the more impact the original presentation has the better, for example, if it is colorful, dramatic, unusual in any way remember you have to take into account the multiple intelligences (visual, aural, kinaesthetic), if it is a long presentation it is good to finish with a brief restatement of the main point. //


 * // Peer teaching: //

** Unit two **** : ****// Examples of presentation procedures //**

 * // **Reading words**: the teacher bases his presentation on the students own choice of vocabulary, from their own inner worlds, this makes not only intellectual but also emotional association with the vocabulary which is more meaningful and has a positive effect on retention as well as on immediate attention, general motivation and ability o read the material. //


 * // **Learning a dialogue**: the aim of this presentation is to get students to learn the dialogue by heart for further practice. The resulting preliminary toe learning of the words of the dialogue would probably be satisfactory, as it stands the method of teaching does not provide for congnitive or affective depth, it fails to engage the ss. Intellectual or emotional faculties in any way. It is important to emphasize ss. Understanding of the meaning of the dialogue from the beginning, not just their learning by heart the words. //


 * // **Accusations**: this is an activity iomprovised by a resourceful teacher witrh a sense of humor and a friendly rrelationship with the class, who exploits a specific real time event to teach a language function (accusation, reproach), the presentation seems likely to produce good perception and initial learning, not because of any carefully planned process, but because of the heightened attention and motivation caused by the humor and by the fact of that many of the actual texts are personally relevant to the learners. //


 * // **Dramatic soliloquy:** if the class was a native English speaking class then one would assume that the teachers actinfg and use of props was probably sufficient to cover this aspect, also foreing language learner would presumably need a little more clarification. Dramatic presentation can be very effective although not all teachers have dramatic abilities. //

// When we teach new material, we need to give explicit descriptions of definitions of the concepts or processes, this is one of the most important qualities of a good teacher, one particular kind of explanation that is very important in teaching is **instruction:** the directions that are given to introduce a learning task. //

**//Guidelines for effective explanations and instructions://**


 * **// Prepare: //**

// It is important preparing for a while about the words you will use, the illustrations you will provide and possibly even writing these out, you may feel celar in your own mind and therefore think you can improvise a clear explanation, but that may not necessarily be true. //


 * **// Make sure you have the classes’ full attention //**// : //

// It is very important to have the class attention if they miss bits and pieces they may found difficulties in later tasks, if your are working by groups it is advisable to give the instruction before you divide them not after, if you give the material needed first they will also have the temptation to look at the material and therefore lose to attention and miss the important instructions. //


 * **// Present the information more than once: //**

// A repetition or paraphrase of the necessary information may make a difference, learner´s attention wanders occasionally, and it is also important to present instruction on a different way, verbally, written, etc. //


 * **// Be brief //**// : //

// We all have a limited attention span; make sure your explanations are as brief as possible and clear. You need to think what you need to include or omit exactly, sometime it can even require a short explanation in the student´s mother tongue to avoid the lengthy and difficult target language explanation. //


 * **// Illustrate with examples: //**

// You may explain the meaning of a word, illustrating your explanation with examples of its use in various contexts, relating these as far as possible to the ss. Own lives and experiences. //


 * **// Get feedback: //**

// After finishing explaining check with your class what they have understood, it is not enough to only ask do you understand. Ss. will sometimes say they did even if they have not, it is important to have them produce something about the topic, for ex. Paraphrase or provide further illustrations of their own. //


 * LEARNING A SKILL:** the process of learning a skill by means of a course of instruction has been defines as a three stage process: verbalization, automatization, and autonomy.


 * VERBALIZATION:** teacher describes and demonstrates the skilled behavior to be learnt, learner perceive and understand.


 * AUTOMATIZATION:** teacher suggests exercises, learners practice skill in order to acquire facility, automatize, teacher monitors.


 * AUTONOMY:** learners continue to use skill on their own, becoming more proficient and creative.


 * Characteristics of effective language practice:**


 * **Validity**: the activity should activate learners primarily in the skill or material it purports to practice. Many speaking activities for example have the ss. listening to the teacher more than talking themselves. Validity does not necessarily imply that the language should be used for some kind of replication of real life communication.


 * **Pre learning**: the ss. should have a good preliminary grasp or idea of the language they are require to practice, though they may only be able to produce or understand it slowly and after tough: If they are required to do a practice activity based on something they have not yet begun to learn, they will either not be able to do it at all, or will produce unsuccessful responses.


 * **Volume**: the more language the learners actually engage with during the activity, the more practice in it they will get.


 * **Success orientation**: we consolidate learning by doing things right. Continued inaccurate or unacceptable performance results only in fossilization of mistakes and general discouragement. It is important to design and administer preactive activities in such a way that learner are likely to succeed in going the task. Repeated successful performance is likely to result in effective automatization of whatever is being performed.


 * **Heterogeneity**: a good practice activity provides opportunities for useful practice to all, or most, of the different level within a class.


 * **Teacher assistance**: the main function of the teacher is to help the learners do it successfully. If you give an activity and then sit back and relax while the ss flounder, make random uninformed guesses or are uncomfortably hesitant, you are not helping: If instead you assist them you increase their chances of success and effectiveness.


 * **Interest**: teachers have to make sure that their classes are not boring, however if interest is not derived from the challenge of getting the answers right, it has to be rooted in other aspects of the activity: an interesting topic, the need to convey meaningful information, a game like fun task, attention catching material, appeal to learners, feeling or a challenge to their intellect.

= **Module 3** =

Unit one: What are tests for?
A test may be defined as an activity whose main purpose is to convey how well the testee knows or can do something.
 * REASONS FOR TESTING: **
 * Give the teacher an indea of where students are at the moment, decide what to teach next
 * Give the ss. information of what they know, so they have an awareness of what they need to learns or review.
 * Assess for some purpose external to current teaching(a final grade for the course selection)
 * Motivate ss. to learn or review specific material
 * Get a noisy class to be quiet and concentrate
 * Provide a clear indication that the class has reached a station in learning, such as the end of a units, thus contributin to a sense of structure in the course as a whole
 * Get the students to make an effor (in doing the test itself) which is likely to lead to better results and a feeling of satisfaction.
 * Give students tasks which themselves may actually provide useful review or pracgtice, as well as testing
 * Provide ss, with a sense of achievement.and progress in their learning.


 * Unit three: Types of test elicitation techniques **
 * Unit three: **** Types of test elicitation techniques **// Tests can be formal or informal, formal as a regular test where the students are told what they need to know or informal a homework assignment may in fact function as a test to find out whether ss. Have learned some specific point or not //


 * // QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: simple question, very often following reading //
 * //, or as a part of an interview, may require short or long answers. It can be used to test almos anything, it is fairly easy to compose and grade closed ended question, more open, thought provoking ones are more difficult, but may actually test better. //


 * // TRUE FALSE: a statement is given which is to be marked tru or false, this may also be given as a question in which case the answer is yes or no. This does not directly test writing or speakin abilities, only listening or reading, it may be used to test vocabulary, grammar, content of reading or listening passage, fairly easy to desing. //


 * // MULTIPLE CHOICE: the question consists of a stem and a number of option (usually four), from which the testee has to select the right one. This may be used for the same testin purposes as tru false items, it does test rather more thoroughly since it offeres more optional anwers and is obviously very easy to mark. One difficulty is that multiple choice question are sometimes difficult to desigfn they often come out ambiguous or with no clear right answer, or with their solution over obvious, they have to be approached with caution. //
 * // GAP FILLING AND COMPLETION: the testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may not be signaled by a blank or dash. Usually test grammar or vocabulary, it is tedious to compose, but not as difficult as multiple choice, you need to be aware that there might be more than one possible answer. //
 * // GAP FILLING AND COMPLETION: the testee has to complete a sentence by filling a gap or adding something. A gap may or may not be signaled by a blank or dash. Usually test grammar or vocabulary, it is tedious to compose, but not as difficult as multiple choice, you need to be aware that there might be more than one possible answer. //


 * // MATCHING: the testee is faced with two groups of words, phrases or sentences, each item in the first group has to be linked to a different item in the second. This usually tests vocabulary, it is awkard to give orally. Items can be time consuming and difficult to compose, there may be more than one right answer. //


 * // DICTATION: the tester dictates a passage or set of words, the testee writes them down. Mainly to test spelling, punctuation, maybe listening comprehension very easy to prepare and administer, easy to mark. //


 * // CLOZE: words are omitted from a passage at regular intervals (for example every seven words). Usually the first two or three lines are given with no gaps. This testes intensive reading, spelling, and to some extent knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, fairly easy to prepare and administer, marking can be tricky, sometimes difficult to decide if a specific item is acceptable or not. //


 * // TRANSFORMATION: a sentence is given, the testee has to change it according to some given instruction. Easy to design, administer and mark, its validity may be suspect. It tests the ability of the testee to transform grammatical structure which is no the same as testing grammar, a testee may perform well on transformation items without knowin the meaning of the target structure. //


 * // REWRITING: a sentence is given, the testee rewrites it, incorporating a given change of expression, but preserving the basic meaning. Same sort of thing as transformation, but is likely to reflect more thorough knowledge of the target items //
 * // TRANSLATION: the testee is asked to translate expressions, sentences or entire passages to or from the target language. //
 * // ESSAY: the testee is given a topic, such as Childhood memories, and asked to write an essay of a specific length. This is a good test of general writing abilities, esay to provide a topic and tell the class to write an essay about it, marking is difficult and time consuming. You need to let the ss. Know how much emphasis your are going to lay on language forms, sucha s spelling, grammar, punctuation. //


 * // MONOLOGUE: the testee is given a topic or question and asked to speak about it for a minute or two. This tests oral fluency in long turns, something not every one can do in their mother tongue, tests overall knowledge of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. Difficult to asses, it demands concentration in behalf of the testee. //

// GUIDELINES FOR TEST PREPARATION //


 * // VALIDITY: check that your items do test what they are meant to. //
 * // CLARITY: make sure the instructions for each item are clear. They should usually include a sample item and solution. //
 * // DO ABILITY: the test should be quite do able, not too difficult, with no trick questions. //
 * // MARKING: decide exactly how you will assess each section of the test, and how much weighting(percentage of the total grade) you will give it. Make the marking system as simple as you can and inform the testees what it is, write in the number of points allotted after the instruction for each question. //
 * // INTEREST: try to go for interesting content and tasks, in order to make the test more motivating for the learners. //
 * // HETEROGENEITY: The test should be such that lower level ss. Can feel that they are able to do a substantial part of the test, while the higher level ones have a chance to show what they know, so include both easy and difficult items, and make one or more of the difficult ones optional. //

// How a test is actually administered and returned can make a huge difference to // // motivation and performance, in particular, sensitive presentation of a test can reduce // // learner anxiety. Question on test administration: //
 * Unit five: **** Test administration **
 * // before the test: do everything you can to ensure ss. Success at least a week in advance give detail of when, where and how long the test will be, the class is also told as precisely as possible what material is to be tested, what sort of item will be included. Sometimes you can give test tips and you can allow some class time for revision, inn order to encourage and help with pre test learning. //
 * // giving the test: it is important to run through instructions with them to make sure everything is clear, you can help ss. Who still have difficutlty with instructions buy not with content. //
 * // after the test: tests should be marked and returned as quickly as possible (within a week) we can discuss specific points while the test is still fresh in their minds, go through the answers in class. //

//Pronunciation may be defined as://
 * __ Module 4 __**
 * Unit one: ****// What does teaching pronunciation involve? //**
 * //The sounds of language (phonology): it is useful to be able to list and define the sounds, or phonemes, of the language by writing them down using phonetic representations.//
 * //Stress and rhythm: English speech rhythm is characterized by tone units: a word or group of words which carries one central stressed syllable.//
 * //Intonation: the rises and falls in tone that make the tune of an utterance, is an important aspect of the pronunciation of English, often making a difference to meaning or implication, stress for example is most commonly indicated not by increased volume but by a slight rise in intonation.//
 * //Flow of speech: it is important to be aware of the way different sounds, stresses and intonation may affect one another within the flow of speech.//


 * Unit three: **** Improving learners’ pronunciation **

//OBJECTIVE: the aim of pronunciation improvement is not to achieve a perfect imitation of a native accent, but simply to get the learner to pronounce accurately enough to be easily and comfortably comprehensible to others, perfect accents are difficult if not impossible for us to achieve in a foreign language//


 * //IDEAS FOR IMPROVING LEARNERS PRONUNCIATION box//** //4.4 (page 54)//


 * //imitation of the teacher or recorded model of sounds, words and sentences//
 * //recording of learner speech, contrasted with native model//
 * //systematic explanation and instruction (including details of the structure and movement of parts of the mouth)//
 * //imitation drills: repetition of sounds, words and sentences//
 * //choral repetition of drills//
 * //varied repetition of drills (varied speed, volume, mood)//
 * //learning and performing dialogues//
 * //learning by heart of sentences, rhymes, jingles//
 * //jazz cants//
 * //tongue twisters//
 * //Self correction through listening to recordings of own speech.//

//Pronunciation spelling correspondence, some teaching ideas://
 * //PRONUNCIATION AND SPELLING//**//://


 * //Dictation: of random lists of words that have similar spelling problems, of complete sentences, of half sentences to be completed//
 * //Reading aloud: syllables, words, phrases, sentences//
 * //Discrimination (1): prepare a set of minimal pairs, pairs of word which differ from each other in one sound letter combination.//
 * //Discrimination (2): provide a list of words that are spelt the same in the learner’s mother tongue and in target language: read aloud, or ask learner to and discuss the differences in pronunciation and meaning.//
 * //Prediction (1): provide a set of letter combinations, which are parts of words the learner know. How would the learner expect them to be pronounced, then reveal the full word.//
 * //Prediction (2): dictate a set of words in the target language which the learners do not know yet, but whose spelling accords with rules. Can they spell them?//

//Vocabulary: it can be roughly defined as the words we teach in the foreign language. What needs to be taught:// //The ss. has to know what a word sounds like (pronunciation) and what it looks like (spelling). We need to make sure that both these aspects are accurately presented and learned.//
 * __ MODULE 6 __**
 * Unit one: **** What is vocabulary and what needs to be taught? **
 * //Form: pronunciation and spelling://

//The meaning of a word is primarily what it refers to in the real world, its denotation, sort of the definition given in a dictionary. Connotation: the association, or positive or negative feelings it evokes, which may or may not be indicated in a dictionary definition. A more subtle aspect of meaning that often needs to be taught is whether a particular item is the appropriate one to use in a certain context or not.//
 * //Grammar: the grammar of a news item will need to be taught if this is not obviously covered by general grammatical rules. An item may have an unpredictable change of form in certain grammatical contexts or may have some idiosyncratic way of connecting with other words in sentences, it is important to provide learner with this information at the same time as we teach the base form.//
 * //Collocation: no entendi bien esta parte de collocation.//
 * //Aspects of meaning: denotation, connotation and appropriateness.//
 * //Aspects of meaning: denotation, connotation and appropriateness.//

//Ways of ´presenting the meaning of new// //Vocabulary://
 * Unit two: **** Presenting new vocabulary **


 * //Concise definition (as in a dictionary)//
 * //Examples (hyponyms)//
 * //Illustration (picture, object)//
 * //Demonstration (acting, mime)//
 * //Context (story or sentence in which the item occurs)//
 * //Synonyms//
 * //Opposites, antonyms//
 * //Translation//
 * //Associated ideas, collocations//
 * Detailed description (of appearance, qualities)**


 * Unit four ****//: Ideas for vocabulary work in the classroom //**


 * //Brainstorm round an idea: write a single word in the centre of the board, ask ss. To brainstorm all the words they can think that are connected with it, every item that is suggested is written up on the board with a line connecting it to the original word. This activity is mainly for revising word the class already knows, although new ones may be introduced by the teacher or ss.//


 * //Identifying words we know: instead of words we do not know, ss are asked to highlight the words they already know, this activity tends to be morale boosting in that it stresses what the students know rather than what they do not. It encourages cooperation and peer teaching.//

//In principle the objective of listening comprehension practice in the classroom is that students should learn to function successfully in real life listening situations. Some examples of real life listening situation are://
 * //__ MODULE 8 __//**
 * // Unit one: //****// What does real-life listening involve? //**
 * //Interviews, instruction, loudspeaker announcements, radio news//
 * //Committee meetings, shopping, theatre shows, telephone chat, lessons//
 * //Lectures, conversation, gossip, watching tv., storytelling.//


 * //Characteristics of real-life listening situations://**

//Listener expectation and purpose: the listener almost always knows in advance what is going to be said. Who is speaking, for example, or the basic topic, the listener expects to hear something relevant to his or her purpose.//
 * **//informal//** //**spoken discourse:** most of the language we listen to is informal and spontaneous, informal speech has many interesting features://
 * //Brevity of chunks: usually broke into chunks, people take turns to speak a few seconds each.//
 * //Pronunciation: words are sometimes slurred and different from the phonological representation given in a dictionary.//
 * //Vocabulary: it is often colloquial.//
 * //Grammar: informal speech is ungrammatical.//
 * //Noise: bits of the discourse that are unintelligible to the hearer.//
 * //Redundancy: it includes such a thing as repetition, paraphrase, self correction,, use of fillers (I mean, well)//
 * //Non repetition: the discourse will not be repeated; normally it is only heard once.//
 * **//Looking as well as listening://** //normally we have something to look at that is linked to what is being said: usually the speaker him or herself, but often other visual stimuli as well, for example a map, scene or object, or the environment in general.//
 * **//Ongoing, purposeful listener response://** //the listener is usually responding at interval as the discourse is going on. It is relatively rare for us to listen to extended speech and respond only at the end.//
 * **//Speaker attention://** //the speaker usually direct his or her speech at the listener, takes the listener´s character, intentions, etc. into account when speaking, and often responds directly to his or her reaction, whether verbal or nonverbal, by changing or adapting the discourse.//
 * // UNIT TWO: //****// TYPES OF ACTIVITIES: //**
 * 1) **//Not overt response://** //the learners do not have to do anything in response to the listening, however, facial expression and body language often show if they are following or not.//
 * Stories: tell a joke or real life anecdote, retell a well know story, read a story from a book, or play a recording of a story, if the story is well chose, learners are likely to be motivated to attend and understand in order to enjoy it.
 * Songs: sing a song yourself, or play a recording of one. Note, however, that if no response is required learners may simply enjoy the music without understanding the words.
 * Entertainment: films, theatre, video. As with stories, if the content is really entertaining (interesting, stimulating, humorous, dramatic) learners will be motivated to make the effort to understand without the need for any further task.

2. **Short responses:**
 * Obeying instructions: learners perform actions, or draw shapes or pictures, in response to instructions.
 * Ticking off items: a list, text or picture is provided: listeners mark or tick off words components as they hear them within a spoken description, story or simple list of items.
 * True False: the listening passage consists of a number of statements, some of which are true and other false: the students write ticks or crosses to indicate whether the statements are right or wrong.
 * Detecting mistakes: the teacher tells a story or describes something something the class knows, but with a number of deliberate mistakes or inconsistencies. Listeners raise their hands or call out when they hear something wrong.
 * Cloze: the listening text has occasional brief gaps, represented by silence or some kind of buzz. Learners write down what they think might be the missing word. Note that if the text is recorded, the gaps have to be much more widely spaced than in a reading one, otherwise there is not enough time to listen, understand, think of the answer and write. If you are speaking the text yourself, you can adapt to the ss. speed.
 * Guessing definitions: the teacher provides brief oral definitions of a person, place, thing action or whatever, learners write down what they think it is.
 * Skimming and scanning: a not too long listening text is given, improvised or recorded, learners are asked to indentify some general topic or information (skimming) or certain limited information (scanning) and not the answer.

3. **Longer responses:**


 * **Answering questions:** one or more questions demanding fairly full responses are given in advance, to which the listening te4xt provides the answer, because of the relative length of the answers demanded, they are most conveniently given in writing.
 * Note taking: learners take brief notes from a short lecture or talk.
 * paraphrasing and translating: learners rewrite the listening text in different words: either in the same language (paraphrase) or in another (translation)
 * summarizing: learners write a brief summary of the content of the listening passage:
 * Long gap filling: a long gap is left, at the beginning, middle or end of a text, learners guess and write down, or say, what they think might be missing.

4. **Extended responses:** here the listening is only a jump off point, for extended reading, writing or speaking, in other words, these are combined skills activities.
 * Problem solving: a problem is described orally, learner discusses how to deal with it and or write down a suggested solution.
 * Interpretation: an extract from a piece of dialogue or monologue is provided, with no previous information, the listeners try to guess from the words, kinds of voices, tone and any other evidence what is going on. At a more sophisticated level, a piece of literature that is suitable for reading aloud (some poetry for example) can be discussed and analyzed.

** Unit one: **** Successful oral practice ** Of all the four skills speaking is the most important one people who know a language are referred to as speakers of that language, classroom activities that develop learners ability to express themselves through speech would therefore seem an important component of a language course. **Characteristics of a successful speaking activity:**
 * __ Module __****__ 9 __**


 * Learners talk a lot: as much as possible of the period of time allotted to the activity is in fact occupied by learner talk. This may seem obvious, but often most time is taken up with the teacher talk or pauses.
 * participation is even: classroom discussion is not dominated by a minority of talkative participants, all get a chance to speak, and contributions are fairly evenly distributed:
 * Motivation is high: learners are eager to speak, because they are interested in the topic and have something new to say about it, or because they want to contribute to achieving a task objective.
 * Language is of an acceptable level: learners express themselves in utterances that are relevant, easily comprehensible to each other, and of an acceptable level of language accuracy.

**Problems with speaking activities:**


 * 1) Inhibition: unlike reading, writing and listening activities, speaking requires some degree of real-time exposure to an audience, learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom: worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism or losing face, or simply shy of the attention that their speech attracts.
 * 2) Nothing to say: even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learners complain that they cannot think of anything to say, they have no motive to express themselves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.
 * 3) Low or uneven participation: only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be heard, and in a large group this means that each one will have only very little talking time. This problem is compounded by the tendency of some learners to dominate, while other speaks very little or not at all.
 * 4) Mother tongue use: in classes where all, or a number of, the learners share the same mother tongue, they may tend to use it, because it is easier, because it fell unnatural to speak to one another in a foreign language, and because they fell less exposed if they are speaking their mother tongue. If they are talking in small groups it can be quite difficult to get some classes particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones, to keep to the target language.


 * What can a teacher do to solve problems with speaking activities:**
 * 1) Use group work: this increases the amount of learner talk, also lowers the inhibition of learners who are unwilling to speak in front of the whole class.
 * 2) base the activity on easy language: the level of language needed for a discussion should be lower than that used in intensive language learning activities in the same class, it should be easily recalled and produced by the participants, so that they can speak fluently with the minimum of hesitation,
 * 3) Make a careful choice of topic and task to stimulate interest: on the whole, the clearer the purpose of the discussion the more motivated participants will be.
 * 4) Give some instruction or training in discussion skills: if the task is based on group discussion then include instructions about participation when introducing it. For example, tell learners to make sure that everyone in the group contributes to the discussion, appoint a chairperson to each group who will regulate participation.
 * 5) Keep students speaking the target language: you might appoint one of the groups as monitor, whose job it is to remind participants to use the target language, and perhaps report later to the teacher how well the group managed to keep to it. Even if there is no a determined punishment for not speaking the idea of someone monitoring will help. It is always best for the teacher to be there as much as possible, reminding and modeling the language yourself.

** Unit two: **** the function of topic and task ** **Topi**c: a good topic is one to which learners can relate using ideas from their own experience and knowledge; the ability-grouping topic is therefore appropriate for most schoolchildren, schoolteacher or young people whose school memories are fresh. It should also represent a genuine controversy, in which participant are likely to be fairly evenly divided. A topic centered discussion can be done as a formal debate, where a motion is proposed and opposed by prepared speakers, discussed further by members of the group, and finally voted on by all.

**Task**: a task is essentially goal-oriented, it requires the group, or pair, to achieve an objective that is usually expressed by and observable result, such as brief notes or list, a rearrangement of jumbled item, a drawing, a spoken summary. Unit three: discussion activities


 * Describing pictures
 * picture differences
 * things in common
 * shopping list
 * solving a problem
 * interactional talk
 * long turns
 * varied situation, feelings, relation


 * // UNIT THREE: //****// DISCUSSION ACTIVITIES //**


 * //Describing pictures: This is a simple but surprisingly productive activity for beginner classes. Make sure participants understand that it is only necessary for the secretary to put a tick for each contribution, some tend to assume that every sentence has to be written out, but this cuts down drastically the amount of talk possible. The second time round, with a new picture, the groups almost invariably break their previous record.//


 * //Picture differences: A well known activity which usually produces plenty of purposeful question and answer exchanges. The vocabulary needed is specific and fairly predictable, make sure it is known in advance, writing up new words on the board, though you may find you have to add to the list as the activity is going on. The problem here is the temptation to peep at a partner´s picture: your function during the activity may be mainly to stop people cheating. You may also need to drop hints to pairs that are stuck.//


 * //Things in common: an ice breaking activity, which fosters a feeling of solidarity by stressing shared characteristics of participants. At the end if all pairs tell the class everything they found, then the feedback gets a little tedious, it is better to ask a few volunteers to suggest selected ideas that they think are particularly original.//
 * //Shopping list: an imaginative, fun activity, but it is rather sterile in the amount of talk it produces. Participants may simply ask each other one, seven, and answer yes or no. The teacher can role play the store owner.//


 * //Solving a problem: particularly suitable for people who are themselves adolescents, or involved with adolescent education, and is intended for fairly advanced learners. It usually works well, producing a high level of participation and motivation, as with many simulation tasks, participants tend to become personally involved.//


 * __ Module 10 __**
 * // Unit one: //****// How do we read? //**

//Learner who says I can read the words but I do not know what they mean, is not,// //Therefore, reading, in this sense. He or she is merely decoding, translating written// //Symbols into corresponding sounds.//
 * //__Reading:__//** //means reading and understanding a foreign language//


 * //Some assumptions about the nature of reading://**


 * We need to perceive and decode letter in order to read words.
 * We need to understand all the words in order to understand a text.
 * The more symbols or letters there are the longer it will take to read.
 * We gather meaning from what we read.
 * Our understanding of a text comes from understanding the words of which it is composed.


 * The reality about the nature of reading:**


 * When beginning to read a text we depend on decoding letter to understand words, but as soon as there is a meaningful context we tend to bring our own interpretation to the word, thus reading activities should probably stress reading for understanding rather than exact decoding of letters.


 * We need to understand some words in order to understand the meaning of a text, but by no means **all,** we often skip or misread words in order to make sense of the whole more quickly or conveniently, as teacher we need to encourage ss. To go for the overall meaning of a text, not word by word.


 * Very roughly, the more sense units there are in a text, the longer it will take to read it. If smaller sense units (words, sentences) are combined into bigger, coherent ones (sentences, paragraphs), the whole is much faster to read than if they are separate on incoherent. Learners therefore will provably read more successfully if given whole meaningful units of text to read rather than disconnected bits.


 * The word gather implies that somehow the meaning of a text is there in the words and all we need to do is pick it up. However, our understanding is based on far more than simple reception of the word themselves, and the process of reading would be better defined as constructing meaning from a written text. The construction of mean that occurs in reading is a combination of bottom up processes (decoding and understanding words, phrases and sentences sin the text) and top down ones (our expectation, previous knowledge constructs (schemata) of the text content and genre) It is very difficult, sometimes impossible, to read successfully a text where our own schema cannot be brought to bear. Thus learners, should b encouraged to combine top down and bottom up strategies in reading, which means in practice doing such things as discussing the topic of a text before reading it, arousing expectations, eliciting connections between references in the text and situation known to the learners.




 * // Unit three: //****// Types of reading //**

//Activities text plus comprehension questions: a conventional type of reading, activity or test consists of a text followed by comprehension question. Different reading activities can be for different kinds of learner, or for a specific class, a locally used textbook may be one source of ideas as well as your own experience and creativity.//


 * //Ideas for reading activities://**


 * 1) Pre question: a general question is given before reading, asking the learners to find out a piece of information central to the understanding of the text.


 * 1) Do it yourself questions: learner compose and answer their own questions


 * 1) Provide a title: learner suggests a title if none was given originally, or an alternative, if there was.


 * 1) Summarize: learners summarize the content in a sentence or two. This may also be done in the mother tongue.


 * 1) Continue: the text is a story, learner suggest what might have happened next.


 * 1) Preface: The text is a story, learners suggest what might have happened before.


 * 1) Gapped text: towards the end of the text, four or five gaps are left that can only be filled in if the text has been understood. Not that this is different from the conventional cloze test (a text with regular gaps throughout) which tests grammatical and lexical accuracy and actually discourages purposeful, fluent reading.


 * 1) Mistakes in the text: the text has, towards the end, occasional mistakes (wrong words, or intrusive one, or omissions). Learners are told in advance how many mistakes to look for.


 * 1) Comparison: there are two texts on a similar topic, learners note points of similarity or difference of content.


 * 1) Responding: the text is a letter or a provocative article, learner discuss how they would respond, or write an answer.


 * 1) Representation of content: the text gives or tells a story, learners re-present its content through a different graphic medium. For example: a drawing that illustrates the text; coloring; marking a map; lists of events or items described in the text.


 * // Unit four: //****// Improving reading skills: //**

//Reading skills need to be fostered so that learner can cope with// //More and more sophisticated texts and tasks, and deal with them efficiently, quickly, appropriately and skillfully//

//Box 10.10 page 148 ????//

//RECOMMENDATIONS://


 * 1) //Make sure your ss. Get a lot of successful reading experience, through encouraging them to choose their own simplified readers.//
 * 2) //The vocabulary should be familiar to the ss. And that the unknown words can be easily guess or safely ignored.//
 * 3) //Give ss. Tasks before reading, so they have a clear purpose and motivating challenge. Use texts that are interesting enough to be self-motivated.//
 * 4) //Make sure that the tasks encourage selective, intelligent reading for the main meaning, and do not just test understanding of trivial details.//
 * 5) //Let and encourage ss. To read without understanding every single word.//
 * 6) //Provide a big variety of reading, so ss. Can practice different kinds of reading.//


 * //__ MODULE 11 __//****//TEACHING WRITING//**


 * // Unit two: //****// Teaching procedures //**

//Teaching writing in a foreign language is to get learners to// //Acquire the abilities and skills they need to produce a range of different kinds of written texts similar to those an educated person would be expected to be able to produce in their own language.//


 * //Writing as a means and as an end://**


 * **//Writings as a mean://** //It is simply writing down information as new vocabulary, copy out grammar rules, writing down answers to reading or listening comprehension questions.//


 * //.**writing as an end:**// ss. express themselves using their own words, examples of this writing would be narrating a story, writing a letter.

*** when you test a grammar target or vocabulary have your students write as a means - but when you just want to let them express themselves have them write as an end. When you combine them you will mark both the structure of the piece and the message!
 * **//Writing as both mean and end://** this is a combination for example the writing of anecdotes to illustrate the meaning of idioms combines writing with vocabulary practice


 * //Writing for contend and or form://**

//The purpose of writing is the expression of ideas, the conveying of a message to the reader, so the ideas themselves should arguably be seen as the most important aspect of writing, on the other hand the writer needs to pay attention to formal aspects as handwriting, spelling, punctuation, grammar and vocabulary.//


 * // Unit three: //****// tasks that stimulate writing //**

//Tasks given to stimulate writing do not always do so very effectively, when you are selecting activities or designing your own for a class you are teaching, what are your chief consideration://

//SOME CRITERIA FOR THE EVALUATION OF TEXTBOOK WRITING ACTIVITIES://


 * //Would my ss find the activity motivating and interesting?//
 * //Is the level appropriate for them, or is it too easy or too difficult?//
 * //Is the writing relevant to their needs?//
 * //Would preliminary teaching for the activity be needed?//
 * //Do I like the activity, would I use it?//

//WRITING TASKS//
 * //Book report: writing that can be a routine, rather boring exercise, usually used to check if ss. Have read a book.//


 * //Book review: similar to a book report, it also need preliminary guidance, but is a little more purposeful, audience oriented and more interesting to do.//


 * //.instruction sheets: this is more interesting for ss that book report and book review, ts. Have to give advice on the layout.//


 * //Narrative: an interesting task that can be adapted for all levels, pictures and cut outs can be used.//


 * //.personal story: ss. Are motivated to write about personal experiences, they can also write at their own level, the teacher can contribute with a story himself or a volunteer ss.//


 * //Describe a view: interesting, should be kept short, if there is no window to look out, ss. could write about a view they recall.//


 * //Describe people or someone: interesting, motivated for the stimulus of the imagination.//


 * //Answer a letter: a highly motivating task, fairly advanced, teacher can provide the original letter, or they can answer each other´s letters, information on formalities and layouts are important.//


 * //Job application: similar to letters.//


 * //Propose change: advanced writing, it involves convincing presentation of an argument.//


 * //News reports: clear model-imitation writing, not very interesting to ss, maybe more interesting if it is about a local event.//


 * //.ideal school: interesting and appealing to ss. Preliminary brainstorm of topics to be included is important.//


 * //.describe process: more sophisticated task, requires good organization and order of facts, nice to use in science and technology.//


 * // Unit five: //****// giving feedback on writing //**

//What should feedback be mainly on: language, content or organization should all mistakes be corrected should learners rewrite, incorporating corrections should we let students correct or give feedback on each other´s written work.//

They are both important content being: if the ideas that are written are significant and interesting and organization: if the ideas are arranged in a way that is easy to follow and pleasing to read, in the other hand language forms: is grammar, vocabulary, spelling, punctuation correct? A lot of teacher worry more about language forms, because mistakes in spelling and grammar are difficult to ignore, ss: want these corrections to be made, these mistakes are easier to find and correct than those of content and organization.
 * //Content, organization or Language forms://**


 * Should all mistakes be corrected?**

The correcting of mistakes is part of the language instruction, but too much of it can be discouraging for ss. And demoralizing also. Correcting these can distract the teacher from focusing in content and organization. If correcting too much is going to affect learning then we shall ignored them, we could correct only mistakes that actually affect meaning as confusion on the part of the reader or those mistakes which are basic.


 * Should learners rewrite incorporating corrections?**

Rewriting is very important because it reinforces learning, but if we make our ss. To rewrites, we as teacher need to also reread and value our ss. Effort.


 * Should we let ss. Correct or give feedback on each other´s work?**

In general peer correction can be time saving for ts. Students could find a lot of the mistakes in content, language that need to be corrected, but they might not find them all. Peers could evaluate their first draft and then teacher review the final draft. The fact of ss. being uncomfortable with other checking their work is not something the teacher can solve it will depend on each individual.


 * __ MODULE 12 __**


 * // Unit one: //****// What is syllabus //****// ? //**

//A syllabus is a document which consists, essentially, of a list,// //this list specifies all the things that are to be taught in the course, for which the syllabus was designed, it is therefore comprehensive, the actual components of the list may be either content item, the syllabus generally has explicit objectives, usually declared at the beginning of the document, on the basis of which the components of the list are// //Selected and ordered, it is a public document// On the other hand the curriuclum refers to the objectives, competencies, achievement indicators, methofologies and evaluation criteria for a determined grade level in a specific context.
 * //CHARACTERISTICS OF A SYLLABUS://**

Content items (words, structures, topics) Process items (tasks, methods)
 * 1) It consists of a list of:
 * 1) It is order, organized
 * 2) It has objectives (usually included in the introduction)
 * 3) It is a public document
 * 4) May indicate a preferred methodology or approach
 * 5) May recommend materials.
 * 6) Others ( schedule, textbooks, etc.)

Syllabuses in ELT Not totally distinct from each other. Integrated product of two or more of the types of syllabi. 1. A procedural syllabus The procedural syllabus was proposed by Prabhu (1980). Prabhu’s '//Bangalore Project//' was based on the premise that structure can be best learned when attention is concentrated on //meaning//. The focus shifts from the linguistic aspect to the pedagogical one focusing on learning or the learner. The tasks and activities are designed and planned in advance but not the linguistic content. In this syllabus //tasks// are graded conceptually and grouped by similarity. 2. A cultural syllabus Stern (1992) introduces ‘cultural syllabus’ to be incorporated into second/foreign language education. Affective goals; interest, intellectual curiosity, and empathy. Awareness of its characteristics and of differences between the target culture Emphasis on the understanding socio-cultural implications of language and language use 3. A situational syllabus With this type of syllabus, the essential component of organization is a non-linguistic category, i.e. the situation. The underlying premise is that language is related to the situational contexts in which it occurs. The designer of a situational syllabus tries to predict those situations in which the learner will find him/herself, and applies these situations, for instance; seeing the dentist, going to the cinema and meeting a new student, as a basis for selecting and presenting language content. The content of language teaching is a collection of real or imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used. In this syllabus, situational needs are important rather than grammatical units.
 * // Unit two: //****// different types of language syllabus: //**

Skills are abilities that people must be able to do to be competent enough in a language, rather independently of the situation or context in which the language use can occur. In this syllabus, the content of the language teaching involves a collection of particular skills that may play a role in using language. Although situational syllabuses combine functions together into specific settings of language use, skill-based syllabi merge linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse) together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening to spoken language for the main idea, writing well-formed paragraphs, delivering effective lectures, and so forth. This is recognized as the traditional syllabus which is often organized along grammatical lines giving primacy to language form. The focus is on the outcomes or the product. It is, in fact, a grammatical syllabus in which the selection and grading of the content is on the basis of the complexity and simplicity of grammatical items Since there is no serious rationale behind the selection of only one of the inventory item types necessary to be chosen as a unit of organization. It is possible to design a syllabus involving lessons of varying orientation; for example, some including important functions, others dealing with situations and topics, and yet others with notions and structures. The underlying principle is that there should be flexibility to change the central point of the teaching material as the course unfolds. This will lead to a syllabus design which is flexible, less rigid and more responsive to the various student language needs. A task-based syllabus supports using tasks and activities to encourage learners to utilize the language communicatively so as to achieve a purpose. It indicates that speaking a language is a skill best perfected through interaction and practice. The most important point is that tasks must be relevant to the real world language needs of the learner. It should be a meaningful task so as to enhance learning. The actual syllabus is designed as the teaching and learning proceeds. This type of syllabus was supported by Breen (1984a:1984b) whereby a framework can be provided within which either a pre-designed content syllabus can be publicly analyzed and evaluated by the classroom group, or a developing content syllabus can be designed in an on-going way. It supports a frame for decisions and alternative procedures, activities and tasks for the classroom group. It explicitly attends to teaching and learning and particularly the possible interrelationships between subject matter, learning and the potential contributions of a classroom. The chief emphasis of this syllabus is upon the communicative purpose and conceptual meaning of language i.e. //notions// and //functions//. In other words, the content of the language teaching is a number of the //functions// that are performed on using the language, or of the //notions// that language is utilized to express. Functions can be exemplified by instances such as inviting, requesting, agreeing, apologizing; and notions embrace age, color, size, comparison, time, etc. Besides, grammatical items and situational elements are considered at subsidiary level of importance.), the functional/notional syllabus seeks for ‘what is a learner communicates through language’. **13. A lexical syllabus** As one of the advocates of the lexical syllabus, Willis (1990, 129-130) asserts that “taking lexis as a starting point enabled us to identify the commonest meanings and patterns in English, and to offer students a picture which is typical of the way English is used-  Lexical syllabus is firmly based on real language.
 * 4. A skill-based syllabus **
 * 5. A structural or formal syllabus **
 * 6. A multi-dimensional syllabus **
 * 7. A task-based syllabus**
 * 8. A process syllabus**
 * 9. A notional/functional syllabus**

//How teachers use syllabus varies widely between different countries and institutions, depends on financial resources as well as teaching approaches. In cases where financial resources are not a problem teacher may find to work the syllabus as the basis of their teaching program, since there is material and investment is not a problem, places where there is only use of a textbook, the syllabus may juts complement the text book, and places where even a textbook is a luxury, the syllabus may be the basis of the course or the teacher´s single textbook or both.//
 * // Unit three: //****// using the syllabus //**// : //


 * __ Module 14 __**

** Unit one: **** different kinds of content ** The topic content of courses may be of a various types. Why different courses tend to stress some types of content and no others depends very much, of course, on the objectives of the course.

TYPES OF NON-LINGUISTIC CONTENT:


 * 1) Zero or trivial content: bland, fairly neutral characters and events, or superficially interesting topic with no cultural or other information or engagement with real-world issues.
 * 2) The language: aspect of the target language treated as topics of study themselves, its history, etymology, morphology.
 * 3) Another subject of study: other subjects on the school or university curriculum, such as science or history, taught through the medium of the foreign language.
 * 4) Home culture: discussion of institutions, people, places, events, writing, etc. pertaining to the learner¨s oww culture.
 * 5) Culture associated with the target language: discussion of institutions, etc. pertaining to the target language.
 * 6) Literature of the target language:
 * 7) World or general knowledge: culture or literature hat is known in any countries, such as some folk tales, the bible, geographical, historical, or political info. About any part of the world.
 * 8) Moral, educational, political or social problems: content that presents, or requires participants to take, a stance on some issue, for example a dilemma to which learners suggest a solution.
 * 9) The learners themselves: exploration of learner´s own experience, knowledge, opinions and feelings, for example activities that ask learners to write about someone they know, or compare tasted in food and drink.

** Unit three: **** underlying messages ** Course content often conveys a Hidden Curriculum, underlying messages that go beyond factual information. These may have to do With religious or political beliefs, or with attitudes towards certain kinds of people, nationalities, or cultures. It is very important for you to be aware of such subtext for two major reason. First, for the sake of your own professional integrity, you want to be sure your are teaching what you want to teach, and not unconsciously expressing support for attitudes you do not approve of, or denigrating those you do. Second, because learner who identify with groups who are discriminated against in course content may actually feel disadvantaged and learn less well: for example, female learners using material which consistently present the male as superior. Possible underlying messages: Sexism, ageism, social orientation, values ** Unit four: **** literature (teaching ideas) ** It is helpful to think of the learning and teaching of a piece of literature as a process containing three main stages;

ADVANTAGES OF LITERATURE TEACHING:


 * It can be enjoyable to read
 * It provides examples of different styles of writing, and representations of various authentic uses of the language.
 * it is a good basis for vocabulary extension
 * it fosters reading skills
 * it can supply an excellent jump-off point for discussion or writing
 * It involves emotions as well as intellect, which add to motivation and may contribute to personal development.
 * It is a part of the target culture and has value as part of the learner´s general education.
 * It encourages empathetic, critical and creative thinking.
 * It raises awareness of different human situations and conflicts.

DISADVANTAGES OF, OR PROBLEMS WITH LITERATURE TEACHING.


 * Much literature is written in language that may be difficult for foreign language learners to read.
 * we can use simplified version, but these are a poor representation of the original-
 * Many literary texts are long and time-consuming to teach.
 * The target-language culture on which the literature is based and alien to learners and may be difficult for them to relate to.
 * By using texts as basis for language teaching we may spoil learner´s enjoyment and appreciation of them as literature.
 * Students of science and technology may find literature irrelevant to their needs.

The author Penny Ur is in favor of including literature in courses, not only as a rich source of language, but also because of its intrinsic educational and aesthetic value and its contribution to motivation and enjoyment. The problems of length, difficulty and alien content are very real ones: she attempts to solve them by careful selection of texts or, occasional, by using only part of a long text.

TEACHING IDEAS:
 * 1) **Encounter and impact**: the teaching objective here is to get learner to perceive the basic form and meaning of the text, and for it to make real impact on them both intellectually and emotionally, it does not matter if they understand every single word, it matter for them to understand enough to have an overall perception of the text.
 * 2) **Understanding and familiarization:** this stage is to get learners to interact with the text thoroughly and repeatedly so that they become familiar with the words and ideas, are confident they know the sequence of events and characters, and to help them to understand and appreciate the text in more depth and detail.
 * 3) **Analysis and interpretation:** Not all classes go very deeply into the interpretation of a text, not all teachers feel confident they can lead discussion on literary analysis. A deeper probing into the meanings and implication of a text does not necessarily demand a knowledge of the terminology of literary criticism, though this can help it is essentially an attempt to discover new levels of meaning or perspectives, or to deepen appreciation of style or structure. The main tools for such probing is the class discussion.

** Unit one: **** what does a lesson involve? ** The lesson is a type of organized social event that occurs in virtually all cultures. Lesson in different places may vary in topic, time, place, atmosphere, methodology and material, but they all, essentially, are concerned with learning as their main objective, involve the participation of learners and teachers and are limited and prescheduled as regards time palace and membership. **ASPECTS OF THE LESSON**:
 * __ Module 15 __**
 * Transaction: an acquisition or a definable mental or physical change in the participants.
 * Interaction: here what is important is the social relationships between learners, or between learners and teachers, a lesson is seen as something that involves relaxed, warm interaction that protects and promotes the confidence and happiness of all participants.
 * Goal oriented effort: involving hard work, this implies awareness of a clear objective, the effort to attain it and the satisfaction or obtaining it or de disappointment of not.
 * A satisfying, enjoyable experience: this experience may be based on such things as aesthetic pleasure, fun, interest, challenge or entertainment, the main point is that participants should enjoy it and therefore be motivated to attend.
 * A role based culture: where certain roles (the teacher) involve responsibility and activity, other (the learners) responsiveness and receptivity . All participants know and accept in advance the demands that will be made on them and their expected behaviors. this often implies:
 * A conventional construct: certain set behaviors occur every time and the other components of the overall event are selected by an authority from a limited set of possibilities. In contrast, there is:
 * A series of free choices: Participants are free to do their own thing within a fairly loose structure, and construct the event as it progresses, through their own decision-making. There is no obvious authority figure that imposes choices.
 * a series of free choices

** Unit three: **** varying lesson components ** A varied lesson, besides being more interesting and pleasant for both teachers and learners, is also likely to cater for a wider range of learning styles and strategies, and may delay onset of fatigue by providing regular refreshing changes in the type of mental or physical activity demand. WAYS OF VARYING A LESSON: GUIDELINES FOR ORDERING COMPONENTS OF A LESSON:
 * 1) Tempo: activities may be brisk and fast moving as a guessing games or slow and reflective as reading literature and responding in writing.
 * 2) Organization: the learners may work on their own at individualized tasks, or in pairs or groups, or as a full class in interaction with the teacher.
 * 3) Mode and skill: activities may be based on the written or the spoken language, and within these, they may vary as to whether the learners are asked to produce (speak, write) or receive (listen, read).
 * 4) Difficulty: Activities may be seen as easy and non-demanding, or difficult, requiring concentration and effort.
 * 5) Topic: both the language teaching point and the (nonlinguistic) topic may change from one activity o other.
 * 6) Mood: activities vary also in mood: light and fun based versus serious and profound, happy versus sad, tense versus relaxed.
 * 7) Stir-settle: Some activities enliven and excite learners (such as controversial discussions, or activities that involve physical movement) others, like dictations, have the effect of calming them down.
 * 8) Active-passive: learners may be activated in a way that encourages their own initiative, or they may only be requires doing as they are told.

//When you have an effective class, usually this is what happens://
 * 1) Put the harder tasks earlier: in general the ss. are fresher an more energetic early in the lesson, so it makes sense to put the harder tasks earlier since they demand more concentration and effort.
 * 2) have quieter activities before lively ones: it is difficult to calm ss. down after a lively activity, specially children and adolescents, so it makes sense to put quieter activities before lively ones, especially if they are the focus of your lesson
 * 3) //Think about transitions: It is helpful to have a very brief transition activity which makes the move smoother from a fast-moving to a slow-moving activity or from a reading-writing activity to an oral one.//
 * 4) //pull the class together at the beginning and the end: if you bring the class together at the beginning for general greetings, organization and introduction of the day´s programmed, and then do a similar full class rounding off at the end, this contributes to a sense of structure.//
 * 5) //End on a positive note: the idea is to have the ss. Feeling good about themselves when they leave the classroom, so at the end giving them a task that will be quick and easy for them to succeed is a good idea, or you can give them a summary of what they have achieved and how much they have advanced, these will make the class end on a positive note.//
 * //The class seemed to be learning the material well//
 * //The ss. Were engaging with the foreign language throughout//
 * //The ss. Were attentive all the time-//
 * //The ss. Enjoyed the lesson, were motivated//
 * //The ss. Were active all the time.//
 * //The lesson went according to plan.//
 * //The language was used communicatively throughout.//
 * // Unit five: //****// practical lesson management //**//HINTS FOR LESSON MANAGEMENT://
 * 1) //Prepare more than you need, it’s always advisable to have an easily prepared reserve activity, just in case of extra time.//
 * 2) //On the other hand if you run out of time, think in advance which parts of the lesson you will cut out.//
 * 3) //Keep a watch visible to keep track of time is going well according to your lesson plan, proper timing will help you run a smoother lesson.//
 * 4) //Don´t leave the giving of the homework at the end, your students attention is lower toward the end and you may run out of time before you can finish explaining the homework, instead explain it earlier and give a quick reminder at the end.//
 * 5) //If you have papers to distribute in the whole class, do not give them out yourself individually, give a number of papers to the ss. Sitting in front and have him an her help you out passing them to the rest of the class.//
 * 6) //When working by groups give the instructions and material before dividing the groups, otherwise they will be looking at the material or at each other and will not catch the instructions.//


 * //__ Module 18 __//**
 * // Unit one: //****// What is discipline? //**//Classroom discipline is a state in which both teacher and////learners accept and consistently observe a set of rules about behavior in the classroom////whose function is to facilitate smooth and efficient teaching and learning in a lesson.//

//HINTS FOR THE TEACHER ON CLASSROOM DISCIPLINE://
 * // Unit two: //****// what does a disciplined classroom look like //**// ? //
 * 1) //Learning is taking place: the relationship between discipline and learning is crucial, it is clear that if the ss. Are disciplines it will be easier for them to learn, but sometimes well behaved classrooms do no learn like they should because of activities with little learning value.//
 * 2) //It is quiet: disciplined classes may or may not be quiet, undisciplined ones are usually noisy, there is therefore arguably some positive correlation between quietness and the level of discipline.//
 * 3) //The teacher is in control: this not necessarily means that the teacher is standing in the front of the classroom telling her ss. What to do, she could have told them what to do and be monitoring them, definitely is the teacher´s responsibility for the control of any disciplined classroom.//
 * 4) //Teacher and students are cooperating smoothly: this is the main manifestation of a well disciplined class. The students have to be cooperating in order to produce this.//
 * 5) //Students are motivated: if the group is motivated to learn it is more likely to be easy to manage.//
 * 6) //The lesson is proceeding according to plan: the teacher knows where he or she is going, activities are well prepared and organized, this will definitely result in a discipline class-//
 * 7) //Teacher and ss. Are aiming for the same objective://
 * 8) //The teacher has natural charismatic authority.: there is definitely teachers who have that charismatic authority whose classes are well discipline, the teacher who do not have it can be equally disciplined they just have to work at it harder.//
 * 1) //Start being firm with ss. You can relax later//
 * 2) //Get silence before you start speaking to the ss-//
 * 3) //Learn and use the ss. Names.//
 * 4) //Prepare your lessons and structure them firmly//
 * 5) //Be mobile, walk around the class.//
 * 6) //Start the lesson with a bang and sustain interest and curiosity//
 * 7) //Speak clearly//
 * 8) //Make sure your instructions are clear//
 * 9) //Have extra material prepared//
 * 10) //Look at the class when speaking.//
 * 11) //Make work appropriate to their age, ability, cultural background.//
 * 12) //Develop an effective questioning technique//
 * 13) //Time your lesson periods//
 * 14) //Vary your teaching techniques//
 * 15) //Anticipate disciplined problems and act quickly//
 * 16) //Avoid confrontations//
 * 17) //Clarify your rules and policies and be firm applying them.//
 * 18) //Be a supporter and helper to your ss.//
 * 19) //Treat ss. With respect//
 * 20) //Use humor constructively//
 * 21) //Choose topics and tasks that will activate students//
 * 22) //Be warm and friendly to your ss.//
 * // Unit four: //****// dealing with discipline problems Teachers //**
 * //Before the problem arises (slogan: prevention is better than cure)//
 * //When the problem is beginning (slogan: Do something)//
 * //When the problem has exploded( act quickly, don´t argue)//
 * **//Before the problem arises://**

//Who are most successful in maintaining discipline in class are not those who are good at dealing with problems, but those who know how to prevent their arising in the first place. Three preventive strategies are://

//Careful planning: lesson clearly planned do not leave gaps for noise to start, the awareness that everything is planned contributes to teacher´s confidence and the ability to win the ss trust.//

//Clear instructions: the instruction need to be transferred clearly, quickly, courteously, assertively, too much hesitation and mind changing can distract and bore ss., clear instructions are crucial.//

//Keep in touch: keep your eyes and ears open, you need to know what goes on in the classroom and if a ss. Is losing track since he or she could become disruptive in the class.//


 * **//When the problem is beginning://**

//Some inexperienced teachers tend to ignore minor problems, hoping they will simply go away, sometimes they do but more often they escalate, it is advisable to respond immediately and actively to any incipient problem you detect. When the problem is beginning you should;//


 * 1) //Deal with it quietly: the best action is a quiet but clear-cut response that stops the deviant activity, for ex. If you have a told a ss. To open his book and he does not, go over to his desk and open it yourself.//
 * 2) //Do not take things personally: if a problem arises deal with the problem and do not over concentrate in the ss. Don´t take things personally, ss. Will quickly forget and you may not.//
 * 3) //Do not use threats: threats are a sign of weakness, discipline when your are sure you are going to follow up your decision.//


 * **//When the problem has exploded//**

//The priority is to act fast in order to get the class to revert to smooth routine as fast as possible. Often is preferable to take a decision, even if it is not a very good one, fast, than to hesitate or do nothing..//
 * 1) //Explode yourself: often a swift, loud command will do the trick, with a display of anger but without losing your temper or becoming personally aggressive, if you display anger do not do it too often or it loses its effect.//
 * 2) //Give in: if ss. refuse to do homework, you may say, ok don´t, this is a perfectly respectful option, many teacher think that by doing so risk loss of face, its advantage is that if you do it quickly you can demand something from ss. In return, just do not do it too often.//
 * 3) //Make them an offer they cannot refuse: if they are pushing you into a confrontation, and you cannot give in, look for a way of diverting or sidestepping the crisis, some strategies are: postpone, or say I´ll tell you what you have to do the assignment but I will give you extra time to finish it.//

//Children have a greater immediate need to be motivated by the teacher or the materials in order to learn effectively, prizes and similar extrinsic rewards can help, but more effective on the whole are elements that contribute towards intrinsic motivation, interest in doing the learning activity itself, such elements are most likely to be effective if they are based on an appeal to the senses or activate the children in speech or movement, three very important sources of interest for children in the classroom are://
 * __ Module 20 __**
 * // Unit two: //****// teaching children //**
 * //Pictures: it is visual, and the more clearly visible, striking and colorful the better, it can come from books, posters, or the teacher´s own sketches.//
 * //Stories: it is visual and aural, young children love stories, stories are pure language the most effective combination in teaching is pictures and stories together, and the success of use of picture-books with young learner has been attested by many.//
 * //Games: this is both visual and aural channel as well as activating language production and sometimes physical movement. You can include game-based procedures as a substantial component in a language course, using the exact name Game can mislead to only having fun and going away from the lesson objective, Penny Ur prefers to use the term game-like language-learning-activity.//


 * // Unit three: //****// Teaching adolescents: student preferences //**

//Teaching adolescent student preferences for inexperienced teachers classes of adolescents are perhaps the most daunting challenge, their learning potential is greater than that of young children but they may be considerably more difficult to motivate and manage, and it takes longer to build upon trusting relationships.//

//When teaching adolescent consider the following://
 * //ss. do not care about their teachers appearance//
 * //They are aware and it is obvious that a teacher cares about his teaching.//
 * //They like to feel that the teacher´s authority is clearly in control//
 * //Most ss. Prefer their teacher to value and respect them more than being their friend .//
 * //Ss. Judge us by how much they learn from us, not by how much they enjoy our lessons, and as they get older they understand that good learning requires effort.//